DESIGNED   FOB 

THE  YOLTII  OF  BOTH  SEXES. 

BY  MRS.  JANE  TAYLOR 
Illustrated  with  Numerous  Anatomical  Engravings* 


DO 


sO 
01 


•1SHED  BY  GEORGE  F.  <:jOOLEDGE  &  BROTHER, 

323   PEARL   STREBT,   FUANKLIN    SQUARE. 
<d  also  published  and  for  sale  by  all  the  principal  Booksellers 
throughout  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  its  Terrdoriet. 

OLD    A~G  E~]  ! 


§ERK£IEY 


WELVE    GOOI>    REASONS 
PHYSIOLOGY  should  be  made  a  common  Study. 


First.  Because  It  is  a  study  that  may  be  made  as  interesting  as  a 
book  of  pleasant  stories  illustrated  with  pictures. 

Second.  Because  it  tells  us  how  we  are  formed,  the  construction  of 
the  human  frame,  and  how  life  is  sustained  in  our  bodies. 

Third.  Because  it  tells  us  how  our  health  may  be  preserved,  and 
how,  by  a  neglect  of  the  laws  of  nature,  it  may  be  destroyed. 

Fourth.  Because  it  tells  us  why  we  are  enabled  to  do  many  things 
that,  without  this  knowledge,  we  should  not  know  how  we  did  them. 


To  all  Clergymen,  Teachers,  and  Others. 
TWELVE  Copies  of  this  BOOK, 

ENTITLED 

"WOFLDST    KNOW    THYSELF," 

OR  THE   OUTLINES   OP 

TJM-A.3XT 

BY  MRS.  JANE   TAYLOR, 

Will  be  sent  by  mail,  "postage  prepaid/'  or  in  other  words  free 
from  charge  for  transportation,  upon  the  receipt  of  a  One  Dollar 
bank-bill  or  its  equivalent  in  postage  stamps,  addressed  to — 

GEO.  F.  COOLEDGE,  Publisher,  NEW  YORK. 
N.  B.  Send  your  Post-office,  County,  and  State  address. 


Fifth.  Because  it  tells  us  what  kinds  of  food,  air,  and  habits  of  living, 
will  promote  the  health  and  strength  of  the  body  and  the  mind. 

Sixth.  Because  it  tells  us  how  our  bodies  are  warmed,  and  why 
they  are  warm  when  the  atmosphere  around  us  is  extremely  cold. 

Seventh.  Because  it  tells  us  the  cause  of  all  our  ails,  aches,  and 
pains,  and  by  what  habits  of  living  they  may  be  prevented. 

Eighth.  Because  it  tells  us  what  care  is  necessary  to  preserve  our 
teeth,  and  our  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  tasting,  and  smelling. 

Ninth.  Because  it  tells  us  what  kind  of  clothing  and  how  much  we 
should  wear  to  protect  our  bodies  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Tenth.  Because  it  tells  us  how  our  lives  may  be  prolonged,  and  how 
we  may,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  attain  a  healthy  and  cheerful  old  age. 

Eleventh.  Because  it  tells  us  that  we  can  not  possess  correct  moral 
feelings,  or  a  sound  mind,  unless  we  keep  our  bodies  in  a  healthy  state. 

Twelfth.  Because  it  tell  us  why  that  it  is  better  to  contract  good 
habits,  than  those  which  are  sure  to  give  us  pain  and  shorten  life. 


HISTS  TO  WWII  ASD  TU«  WAIID1AB  Of  TOW 

'Just  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree's  inclined." 


Forms  which  may  be  cultivated,  ,      Forms  contracted  by  neglect, 


Representing  a  full-chested  and 
erect  man,  one  so  rarely  seen,  al- 
though it  is  no  more  than  can  be 
obtained  in  nearly  every  person  by 
cultivation.  A  person  with  such  a 
chest  would  be  free  from  all  disease 
of  the  Lungs  or  Heart,  and  would 
have  all  the  indication's  of  being  a 
robust  and  long-lived  person. 


.  Representing  an  erect  and  fall-chest- 
ed woman.  Su,-h  a  person  would  nat- 
urally have  a  strong  constitution,  and 
could  endure  a  great  amount  of  labor, 
either  mentally  or  physically.  The 
European  Ladies  are  more  generally 
of  the  above  form  than  the  American, 
because  they  take  more  interest  in 
cultivating  a  full  chest  and  fine  form. 


Representing  a  man  of  stooping 
form  with  small  lungs  and  chest. 
Such  a  person  would  be  almost  sure 
to  have  some  disease  of  the  Lungs, 
Heart,  or  Stomach,  and  would  nat- 
urally be  Consumptive,  and  short- 
lived^ because  the  vital  powers  are 
small.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  contracting  such  a  form. 


Representing  a  facsimile  in  form  of 
a  great  many  women  that  are  daily 
met  with.  Such  persons  are  usually 
troubled  with  that  sinking  sensation, 
or  '^goneness'  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach, 
which  is  always  produced  by  the  pres- 
sure upon  it  in  stooping,  and  might  be 
prevented  by  care  in  keeping  back  the 
shoulders  and  expanding  the  chest. 


HEALTHY  AND  UNHEALTHY  POSITIONS 

ILLUSTRATED. 


Improper  Position. 


Proper  Position. 


Learn  to  sit  up,  young  man,  and  to  imitate  your  opposite  neighbor ; 
for  the  unnatural  position  which  yo-u  have  assumed  will  never  make 
you  a  good  writer.  A  bold  upright  position,  with  the  pen  held  loose- 
ly between  the  fingers,  and  a  determined  purpose  to  imitate  some 
definite  copy  as  nearly  as  possible,  is  the  only  true  road  to  success  in 
the  art  of  writing  or  good  penmanship. 


Healthy  Position. 


Unhealthy  Position. 


An  upright  position,  in  either  sitting  or  walking,  favors  a  healthy 
action  of  all  the  various  organs  of  the  system,  and  besides,  it  gives  a 
graceful  and  dignified  appearance  to  the  human  form.  Children  and 
adults  are  more  or  less  inclined  to  lean  forward  with  their  heads  upon 
their  elbows,  even  when  their  seats  are  provided  with  backs ;  such  a 
position  oft  repeated  must  in  time  result  unfavorably. 


Correct  Position. 


Incorrect  Position. 


See  how  that  round-shouldered  youth  is  sitting  with  his  shoulders 
against  the  chair-back,  and  the  lower  portion  of  his  spine  several 
inches  from  the  back  of  his  chair,  giving  his  body  the  shape  of  a  half 
hoop.  Parents  should  regard  such  a  position  in  their  children  with 
apprehension  as  to  the  result,  and  should  rectify  it  at  once. 


Old  Style  and  New  Style  of  Desks  and  Seats  for  Schools. 


Too  many  schools  arc  furnished  with  seats  of  the  same  uniform 
height.  If  they  are  high  enough  for  the  larger  scholars,  they  are  too 
high  for  the  smaller  children,  (see  fig.  1).  In  sitting  a  child  should 
find  a  support  for  the  back,  and  rest  for  the  entire  thigh-bones  and  feet, 
otherwise  the  bones  of  these,  being  soft  and  growing,  are  liable  to 
become  distorted  or  out  of  shape.  Fig.  2  represents  a  proper  posi- 
tion, and  fig.  3  an  improper  position,  for  sitting. 


Proper  and  Improper  Position  to  lie  in  Bed. 


Curvatures  of  the  spine  may  be  caused  by  too  many  pillows  upon 
which  the  head  rests  while  in  bed  as  represented  above.  Young 
persons  should  lie  as  nearly  level  as  possible  with  the  head  but  slight- 
ly raised  if  at  all.  As  they  advance  in  life,  a  more  elevated  position 
of  the  head  may  be  desirable.  Most  people  lie  upon  the  right  side, 
some  lie  upon  the  back,  but  this  latter  position  is  not  favorable  to  those 
who  are  liable  to  nightmare.  A  change  of  position  is  very  desirable. 


A  Curved,    Round-Shouldered,  and  Erect  Spine. 


How  very  distressing,  and  yet  how  common,  it  is  to  see  curved  or 
deformed  spines.  The  habits  of  children,  especially  of  girls,  if  not 
corrected  in  time,  create  a  fearful  frequency  of  this  spinal  defect. 
Nature  has  given  to  all,  both  male  and  female,  a  sufficiency  of  bono 
and  muscle  to  sustain  them  in  the  most  graceful  and  healthy  position, 
and  when  these  are  correctly  and  faithfully  used,  and  their  strength 
developed,  they  fulfil  their  intended  purposes  and  keep  the  form  erect. 


A  VERY  INTERESTING-  SUBJECT  ! !  jj 

A  Book  that  should  be  in  every  family  and  School  in 
the  United  States  and  its  Territories. 


A  MUCH  NEGLECTED  BUT  MOST  IMPORTANT  STUDY. 


<  YOUTH.  Of  what  use  is  the  study  of  Hainan  Physiology  ? 
OLD  AGE.  It  teaches  us  how  to  preserve  our  health  ; 
what  kinds  of  food,  air,  and  habits  of  living,  will  make 
us  sickly ;  what  practices  will  be  likely  to  shorten  our 
lives ;  and  how,  on  the  other  hand,  we  shall  most  likely 
attain,  with  the  blessing  of  God,  a  healthy  and  cheerful 
old  age. 


OR 
THE     OUTLINES     OF 


BY  MRS.   JANE  TAYLOR. 


DESIGNED   FOR  THE   USE   OF 

FAMILIES    AND    SCHOOLS, 


TO  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS. 

THIS  book  may  be  used  with  great  interest  as  a  reading  class  book 
in  families  and  in  schools.  The  parent  or  teacher  reading  the  questions 
and  the  children  or  pupils  reading  the  answers ;  and  thus  reading  the 
book  through  and  through  until  the  important  lessons  it  contains  shall 
be  fully  impressed  upon  their  youthful  minds. 


PUBLISHED  BY  GEORGE  F.  COOLEDGE, 

323   PEARL   STREET,    FRANKLIN   SQUARE. 

And  also  published  and  for  sale  by  all  the  principal  Booksellers 

throughout  the  United  States  of  America , 

and  its  Territories. 


bat  00  learn  0nmlfos  10  Im0fo  J 
foljat  10  man  anb  fojiat  10  ^00  foe  0foc/'— SPENSER 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1858, 

BY  GEORGE  F.  COOLEDGE, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


"KNOW  THEN  THYSELF." 



"The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  Man." — 

~-^~~v^~~~-^^-~-~~-  LlBRARV 

AN  ADDRESS  TO  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS. 

PHYSIOLOGY  may  seem  a  hard  word  for  the  title  of  a  child's 
book,  and  the  subject  it  presents  may,  on  that  account,  appear 
difficult  of  comprehension  to  the  young  ;  but  this  is  only  because 
IjL  it  is  new  or  uncommon.  The  subject  is  not  often  presented  to 
children,  and,  therefore,  the  word  used  to  designate  it  is  not  famil- 
iar to  their  ears.  Physiology  is  not,  in  reality,  a  harder  word  to 
pronounce  than  Geography.  They  are  both  Greek  words  in  their 
origin,  and  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  one  are  just  as  easily  learn- 
ed  as  the  other.  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth.  Phys- 
iology is  a  description  of  nature,  and  is  confined  to  such  things  as 
have  life,  as  man,  animals,  and  vegetables.  These  three  depart- 
ments are  called  human,  animal,  and  vegetable  physiology. 

This  little  work  is  devoted  to  Human  Physiology,  and  explains, 
in  an  intelligible  and  interesting  manner,  the  structure  of  the 
human  frame,  the  form  and  uses  of  its  several  parts,  the  means 
to  be  employed  for  their  preservation  and  perfection,  and  the 
sources  from  which  danger  is  to  be  apprehended.  It  will  be 
found  to  contain  many  useful  hints  about  clothing,  diet,  exercise, 
health,  and  the  care  of  the  body  generally,  which,  if  faithfully 
studied  and  observed  by  those  for  whose  benefit  it  has  been  pre- 
pared, may  ward  off'  many  a  fit  of  sickness,  save  many  a  doctor's 
bill,  and  lengthen  out  many  a  life,  to  say  nothing  of  the  more 
perfect  development  of  the  form,  the  improvement  of  the  com- 
plexion,  the  preservation  of  the  teeth,  &c.,  all  of  which  suffer 
incalculably,  from  the  simple  fact,  that  neither  parents  nor  children 
understand  a  word  of  physiology,  but  leave  all  that  relates  to 
their  physical  training  and  health  to  chance  and  the  care  of  the 
doctors. 

A  careful  study  of  this  little  book  will  open  the  eyes  of  parents 
and  children  to  the  wonders  of  our  physical  frame,  which,  as  the 
psalmist  beautifully  says,  "is  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made," 
and  to  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  Creator  in  the  adaptation 
of  the  parts  to  their  ends,  and  will  lead  parents,  instead  of  feeling 
surprised  that  carelessness,  neglect,  exposure,  and  indulgence, 
produce  so  many  pains  and  diseases,  to  exclaim,  with  Watts— 

"  Strange  that  a  harp  of  thousand  strings, 
Should  keep  in  tune  so  long." 

NEW  YORK,  January,  1858.  0*7*7  J- 


m 


A  HINT  TO  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS. 


IT  vns  the  original  intention  in  this  compilation  of  facts  in  Physiol- 
ogy  to  state  them  in  the  simplest  language  ;  but  as  the  work  progressed 
it  was  found  necessary  to  use  more  comprehensive  words,  that  a  large 
number  of  facts  might  be  embodied  in  a  limited  space.  Some  of 
these  words  may  not  come  readily  within  the  comprehension  of  the  young 
scholar;  it  would,  therefore,  appear  quite  necessary  that  their  significa- 
tion  should  be  fully  explained  by  the  instructor  as  they  occur,  where  it 
has  not  already  been  done  in  the  work.  To  this  end,  each  parent  or 
teacher  should  be  provided  with  a  DICTIONARY,  both  for  their  own  and 
their  pupils'  benefit,  as  there  is  not  a  word  in  this  book  the  meaning  of 
which  should  not  be  clearly  explained  for  the  better  understanding  of 
the  subject  upon  which  it  treats. 

D^*  Every  family  and  school  should  possess  a  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language,  as  a  book  of  constant  reference  ;  for  with  an  imper- 
feet  knowledge  of  the  accurate  meaning  of  words,  it  must  follow  that  an 
imperfect  understanding  of  facts  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  when  reading 
upon  any  subject. 


TABLE  OF  LESSONS  AND  SUBJECTS. 

ESSON 

1 . — The  Subject  of  Physiology  explained 7 

2.— The  Human  Body 9 

3.— The  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body 13 

4.— Muscular  Effects  of  Habit. 15 

5. — The  Skin,  or  Covering  of  the  Human  Body 17 

6. — The  Brain  and  the  Mind  of  Man 20 

('      7. — The  Nerves  and  the  Nervous  System 21 

8.— The  Sense  of  Touch  or  Feeling 23  J  f 

9. — The  Tongue,  or  the  Sense  of  Taste 25 


10.— The  Nose,  or  the  Sense  of  Smell 26 

11. — The  Ear,  or  the  Sense  of  Hearing 27 

12.— The  Eye,  or  the  Sense  of  Sight 29 


t 

*     13. — The  Heart,  or  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood 33  I  f 

14. — Breathing,  or  the  Heart  and  Lungs 35 

15. — Animal  Heat,  or  Warmth  of  the  Body 38 

16. — The  Stomach,  or  Food  and  its  Digestion 41 

17.— Physiology  of  the  Teeth 46'   ' 

18.— The  Human  Throat,  or  the  Voice 49 

19.— The  Hair  and  the  Nails 52 

20. — Clothing  and  Dress,  or  the  Protection  of  the  Body 54 

21. — Exercise  of  the  Body  and  the  Mind 58 

22. — Effects  of  Alcoholic  Spirits  on  the  Body 60 

23. — Man,  or  "  the  Human  Form  Divine" 62 

24. — Longevity,  or  the  Length  of  Animal  Life 63 


"How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful,  is  man." — YOUNG, 

LESSONS  IN  PHYSIOLOGY. 


LESSON  FIRST. 

The  Subject  Explained. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Fhys-i-ol-o-gy  ? 

This  word  is  formed  from  two  Greek  words,  and  means- a 
description  of  nature. 
What  part  of  nature  does  it  describe  ? 
Organized  or  animated  nature. 
Does  physiology  treat  of  earth,  water,  air,  rocks,  and  minerals  ? 

No,  for  these  being  inanimate  and  unorganized  have  no  life. 
Does  it,  then,  treat  only  of  plants,  brute  animals,  and  man  ? 

Yes,  of  these  alone ;  for  only  these  have  life. 
When  it  describes  plants,  what  is  it  called  ? 

Vegetable  physiology. 
What  is  it  called  when  it  describes  animals  ? 
Animal  physiology. 
What  part  is  to  be  found  in  this  book  ? 

Human  physiology,  or  that  part  which  speaks  of  man. 
What  good  will  it  do  to  study  this  ? 

It  will  teach  us  how  to  preserve  our  health ;  what  kinds  of 
food,  air,  and  habits  of  living,  will  make  us  sickly;  what  prac- 
tices will  be  likely  to  shorten  our  lives  ;  and  how,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  shall  most  likely  attain,  with  the  blessing  of 
God,  a  healthy  and  cheerful  old  age. 

It  will  teach  us,  also,  that  we  can  not  habitually  possess 
lively,  correct  moral  feelings,  or  a  sound  mind,  unless  we  so 
live  as  to  preserve  a  sound  body. 
Do  most  people  understand  these  things  ? 

No ;  they  study  almost  everything  else  but  themselves. 
Why  have  not  people  generally  studied  physiology  ? 

Because  the  books  that  have  been  written  on  the  subject 
have  not  been  made  sufficiently  simple  and  plain  to  make  the 
study  interesting. 
Can  physiology  be  made  a  pleasing  study  ? 

Yes,  one  of  the  most  so  that  can  be  put  in  a  book. 
Does  this  little  book  make  the  study  so  pleasing  ? 

You  will  see  that  it  makes  physiology  as  easy  to  be  under- 
stood,  and  as  interesting  to  read,  as  a  story  with  pictures. 


THE    HUMAN    BODY. 


The  Frame  of  the  Human  Body. 

The  names  by  which  the  different  bones  in  the  human  body  are  known. 

1.  The  back -bone  or  spinal  column.  112.  The  elbow-joint. 

13.  The  wrist  or  joint  by  which  the  hand 
is  united  to  the  arm. 

14.  The  bones  of  the  hand. 

15.  The  pelvis  or  haunch-bone. 

16.  The  sacrum,  a  wedge-shaped  bone  at 

the  lower  end  of  the  back-bone. 

17.  The  hip-joint. 

18.  The  thigh-bone. 

19.  The.  patella  or  cap  of  the  knee. 

20.  The  knee-joint 

21.  The  fibula  or  lesser  bone  of  the  leg. 

22.  The  tibia  or  shin-bone  of  the  leg. 

23.  The  ankle-joint. 

24.  The  bones  of  the  feet 


2.  The  skull  or  head  of  the  human  body. 

3.  The  under  jaw  or  detached  bone  of 

the  skull. 

4.  The  sternum  or  breast-bone. 

5.  The  ribs  or  protection  of  the  heart 
and  lunga. 

6.  The  curtilages  which  connect  the  ribs 
with  the  sternum  or  breast-bone. 

7.  The  clavicle  or  collar-bone. 

8.  The  humnrus  bone  of  the  arm. 

9.  The  should.T-joint. 

10.  The  radius  >  two  bones  running  par 

11.  Th«  ulna     )      a!U>l  with  each  othei 

from  the  elbow  to  the  wrist. 


THE    HUMAN    BODY 


LESSON  SECOND. 

The  Human  Body. 

What  kinds  of  substances  are  found  in  the  human  body? 
Solids  and  fluids. 
What  constitutes  a  solid  ? 

I       That  is   called  a  solid,  the  small  parts  of  which  adhere 
together  so  closely  and  firmly,  that  they  do  not  separate  by 
their  own  weight.     A  stone,  a  piece  of  wood,  a  lump  of  clay, 
a  leaf,  &c.,  are  solids. 
What  constitutes  a  fluid? 

That  is  called  a  fluid,  the  parts  of  which  adhere  together 
(   so  feebly  as  to  separate  readily  by  their  own  weight,  when 
j  not  confined  in  a  vessel.     The  parts  of  a  fluid  move  easily 
[    among  themselves,  and  readily  change  places,  in  any  direc- 
tion, with  each  other.     "Water,  milk,  blood,  and  all  kinds. of 
liquids,  are  fluids. 

Will  you  name  some  of  the  solids  and  some  of  the  fluids  of  the  body  ? 
Bones,  muscles,  and  nerves,  are  solids.     Blood,  tears,  and 
gall,  are  fluids. 

Which  is  the  hardest  solid  in  the  body  ? 
Bone. 

Where  are  the  bones  in  man  placed  ? 
Under  the  skin  and  flesh  of  the  body. 
Where  are  the  bones  of  lobsters,  oysters,  clams,  crabs,  and  other  shell-flsh, 


On  the  outside  of  the  body.     Their  bones  are  called  shells, 
and  serve  to  protect  them  from  injury. 
Why  are  the  bones  of  man  not  on  the  outside  of  the  body  ? 
If  he  was  covered  with  bone  like  an  oyster  he  would  have 


but  little  or  no  feeling  or  knowledge. 
Of  what  use  are  bones  to  man  ? 

They  make  his  body  stronger,  and  keep  it  upright.     "When 
a  carpenter  builds  a  house,  he  makes  and  raises  the  frame 
first.     Bones  are  the  frame  of  the  body.     The  flesh  and  skin 
are  put  on  them  as  the  carpenter  puts  boards,  shingles,  and 
plaster,  on  the  house-frame. 
Are  the  bones  of  children  hard? 
No ;  the  bones  of  children  are  very  soft,  and  easily  bent ;  jj 


'10 


THE    HUMAN    BODY. 


but  they  become  harder  and  stiffer  as  life  advances.     The 
bones  of  old  people  are  dry,  hard,  and  brittle.     Children  are 

sometimes  taught  to  stand  alone, 
and  to  walk,  when  so  young,  as  to 
bend  the  bones  of  their  legs,  and 
thus  make  them  bandy-legged  or 
knock-kneed  for  life. 

There  is  a  tribe  of  Indians  in 
North  America  called  Flatheads. 
This  name  is  derived  from  their 
custom  of  binding  pieces  of  board 
to  the  front  and  back  of  the  heads  of  their  infant  children. 
The  hard  wood,  pressing  against  the  soft  bones  of  the  head, 
flattens  it ;  and  this  pressure  is  continued  till  the  bones,  be- 
come hard  enough  to  retain,  through  life,  the  unnatural  shape 
thus  forced  upon  them.  In  the  same  way,  any  pressure  from 
without,  if  long  continued,  will  alter  the  shape  and  position 
of  the  bones  in  any  part  of  the  body. 
Do  not  tight  clothes,  then,  injure  tfie  body  ? 

Yes ;  when  very  tight,  they  not  only  crowd  the  bones  out 
of  their  natural  places  and  injure  their  shapes,  but  they  pre- 
vent the  free  and  uniform  circulation  of  the  blood :  thus  tight 
clothes  not  only  injure  the  general  health  of  the  body,  but 
sometimes  occasion  sudden  death. 
What  are  bones  made  of? 

They  are  made  from  and  of  our  food,  after  the  food  has 
been  changed  into  blood.  -  As  the  blood  circulates  through 
the  body,  certain  portions  are  secreted,  or  separated  from  it, 
to  supply  the  several  solids  and  fluids  of  the  body.  This 
secretion  is  continually  going  on,  so  that  every  part  of  the 
body  is  constantly  fed  out  of  the  blood. 
How  many  bones  are  there  which  give  form  and  shape  to  the  skull  or  head  f 


Side  View  of  the  Skull. 


Top  View  of  the  Skull. 


THE    HUMAN    BODY.  11 

Eight  bones  or  pieces,  and  these  are  united  like  two  saws 
when  the  toothed  edges  are  pressed  together.     To  make  this 
comparison  more  exact,  the  saw-teeth  should  be  a  little  crook- 
''  ed,  so  as  to  hook  into  each  other. 

How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human  face  ? 

Fourteen,  aside  from  the  teeth,  which  will  be  described 
hereafter. 
Are  there  any  other  bones  in  the  head  ? 

There  are  four  small  bones  in  each  ear.  These  ear-bones 
help  to  convey  the  sound  to  the  brain.  There  is  also  one  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue :  making  in  the  whole  head  sixty-three 
bones,  including  the  teeth,  above  the  upper  joint  of  the  neck 
of  an  adult  or  grown  person. 
What  is  the  back-bone,  its  formation  and  use  ? 

The  back-bone,  or  spinal  column,  is  that 
•which  extends  from  the  bottom  of  the  skull  be- 
hind, down  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  It 
is  made  up  of  twenty-four  short,  round,  and 
perforated  bones,  termed  vertebra,  in  Latin,  but 
in  our  language  vertebers,  and  having  some  re- 
semblance to  so  many  rings  piled  one  upon 
another.  This  resemblance,  however,  is  not 
very  exact ;  for  the  vertebers  are  not  perfectly 
round,  and  they  have,  each  of  them,  several 
projecting  points,  which,  with  the  elastic  carti- 
lage between  every  two  vertebers,  serve  to  link 
and  bind  them  all  together,  and  thus  form  that 
strong,  upright,  and  yet  flexible  column,  which 
gives  erectness,  dignity,  and  grace,  to  the  human 
body.  This  spinal  column,  moreover,  is  largest 
at  the  lower  end,  or  base,  because  at  that  point 
it  has  the  most  weight  to  sustain. 
What  makes  this  bone  crooked  in  some  persons  ? 

The  careless  habit  of  stooping  or  leaning  for- 
ward, remaining  too  long  in  a  one-sided  position, 
sitting  too  long  without  anything  to  lean  the 
back  against,  tight-lacing,  and  the  want  of  suitable  exercise 
in  the  open  air. 
How  many  ribs  has  the  human  body  ? 

Twenty-four ;  twelve  on  each  side.     They  grow  out  of  the 
spine,  forming  a  hoop  by  meeting  and  being  fastened  to  the 
breast-bone  in  front. 
What  is  the  use  of  ribs  ? 
They  are  the  framework  of  that  part  of  the  human  trunk  - 


12 


THE    HUMAN    BODY. 


termed  the  chest,  in  which  the 
lungs  and  heart  are  deposited  for 
safe-keeping. 

What  and  where  are  the  shoulder-bones  ? 
They  are  two  broad,  flat  bones, 
lying  over  and  fastened  to  sev- 
eral of  the  ribs  behind  and  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  chest. 
Of  tvhat  use  are  the  shoulder-bones  ? 
They  furnish  sockets,  or  rests, 
for  the  arms. 

What  and  where  are  the  collar-bones  ? 
They   are    two    long    slender 
bones  passing  over  the  ribs  in 
front  from  the  highest  part  of 
the  shoulder-bones  to  the  head 
Back-bone  and  Ribs.  of  the  breast-bone. 

Of  what  use  are  the  collar-bones  ? 

They  prevent  the  arms  from  sliding  too  far  forward. 
How  many  bones  are  there  in  each  arm  ? 

Three :  one  between  the  shoulder  and  the  elbow,  and  two 
between  the  elbow  and  the  wrist. 
Sow  many  bones  has  the  wrist  ? 

Eight,  all  being  wedge-shaped,  and  strongly  united  together 
by  ligaments  or  gristle. 


How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  hand  and  fingers  ? 
Nineteen.    These  are  also  strongly  secured  together. 


How  many  bones  are  there  in  each  foot  ? 
Twenty-six  ;  all  strongly  fastened  together  by  ligaments, 


THE    MUSCLES    OF   THE    BODY. 


13 


How  many  bones  are  there  in  each  leg  ? 

Three  :  one  between  the  hip  and  knee,  and  two  between 
the  knee  and  ankle.  There  is  also  a  small  bone  or  cap  over 
each  knee,  called  the  knee-pan. 

What  is  the  bone  called  upon  which  the  spine  or  back-bone  rests  ? 
The  pelvis,  and  it  has  four  parts. 
How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  whole  body  ? 

Two  hundred  and  forty,  in  an  adult  or  grown  person. 
Who  have  sound,  healthy  bones  ? 

Those  who  eat  wholesome,  nutritious  food,  and  who  exer- 
cise frequently  in  the  open  air. 
Who  have  diseased  and  unsound  bones  ? 

They  who  work  in  mines,  and 
in   damp,   poorly-lighted   places ; 
they  who  sleep  in  close  rooms, 
where  the  air  is  stagnant  and  im- 
pure ;  they  whose  food  is  usually 
too  scanty,  or  of  a  poor  quality  ; 
they  whose  bodies  whil^  laboring 
are  kept  constantly  bent,  or  in  any 
posture  which  prevents   the   free 
circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  natural  action  of  the  vital 
organs. 
How  often  does  the  entire  body  change  ? 

Every  person  has  another  and  a  different  body  every  ten 
years ;  the  previous  one  having  gradually  wasted  away,  and  a 
new  growth,  by  degrees,  having  taken  its  place. 

LESSON  THIRD. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body. 


Muscles  of  the  inside  of  the  Arm  and  the  Hand. 
How  many  muscles  are  there  in  the  human  body  ? 

It  is  supposed  that  there  are  not  less  than  four  hundred 
and  fifty. 

Of  what  are  the  muscles  composed  ? 
They  are  composed  of  the  fleshy  parts  of  the  body. 


14  THE  MUSCLES  OP  THE  BODY. 


7s  all  flesh,  then,  muscle  9 

All  the  lean  flesh  in  the  body  is,  and  this  is  composed  of 
parts  or  fibers ;  each  part,  or  number  of  parts,  united  into 
one,  is  called  a  muscle. 
Of  what  shape  is  a  muscular  fiber  ? 

It  is  long,  round,  and  fine,  like  a  thread.     Some  of  the 
larger  muscles  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  these  long,  fine 
strings  of  flesh ;  &s  a  skein  of  thread  is  made  of  a  number  of 
threads. 
To  what  are  the  muscles  fastened  f 

To  the  different  bones  of  the  body. 
Of  what  use  are  the  muscles  ? 

They  are  the  instruments  by  which  we  move  the  different 
parts  of  the  body ;  for  by  them  we  perform  every  motion. 
How  do  they  enable  us  to  move  ? 

They  have  the  power  of  contracting,  by  which  their  two 
ends  are  drawn  nearer  to  each  other,  thus  moving  the  bones 
to  which  they  are  attached.  This  contracting  power  is  sub- 
ject to  the  will,  and  we  exercise  it  when  we  please,  without 
knowing  now  we  do  it.  A  piece  of  India-rubber  contracts 
after  having  been  stretched  out,  springing  back  to  its  original 
form  ;  so  the  muscles  become  shorter  at  one  time  and  longer 
at  another,  whenever  we  employ  them  to  move  the  bones  of 
the  body. 
What  is  the  color  of  the  muscles  ? 

They  are  of  a  deep  red  or  blood  color. 
What  appearance  do  they  give  to  the  body  ? 

A  full,  plump  appearance.     When  an  animal  has  lost  the 
greater  part  of  its  flesh,  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  its  muscle, 
it  looks  thin  and  shrunken. 
7s  a  muscle  the  same  as  a  sinew  or  tendon  f 

No  ;  a  sinew  is  white  and  gristly ;  it  is  a  solid,  elastic,  and 
strong  substance,  neither  so  hard  as  bone  nor  soft  as  muscle. 
Muscle  is  simply  lean  flesh,  which  gives  form  and  protection  , 
to  the  body. 
Of  what  shape  are  the  muscles  ? 

The  larger  muscles  are  the  largest  in  the  middle  and  taper 
toward  the  ends.     (See  the  muscles  of  the  arm,  page  13.) 
Are  the  sinews  a  part  of  and  connected  with  the  muscles  ?  % 

Yes  ;  they  are  the  tapered  ends  by  which  the  muscles  are 
connected  with  and  fastened  to  the  bones ;  some  of  these  are 
very  long  arid  slender,  particularly  those  which  extend  from 
the  knees  or  connect  with  the  toes.  The  muscles  and  tendons 
vary  in  size  according  to  the  duty  they  are  required  to  perform. 


MUSCULAR    EFFECTS    OF    HABIT. 


15 


LESSON  FOURTH. 

Muscular  Effects  of  Habit. 

If  around  a  large  limb  of  a  tree,  1  bend 
a  small  limb,  and,  by  tying  it  fast,  keep 
it  in  a  bent,  crooked  form,  what  will  be 
the  result  ? 

The  small  limb  will  grow  twist- 
ed, and  out  of  shape. 

If  a  boy,  or  a  girl,  be  in  the  habit  of 
standing  with  the  shoulders  crooked  over, 
will  not  round  shoulders  and  a  flat  chest 
be  the  consequence  in  after-life  ? 

Certainly ;  our  habits  change  our  forms  and  natures ;  for 
habit  is  so  strong  that  it  is  called  " second  nature" 

How  should  we  stand,  that  the  form  may 
be  natural  and  healthy  ? 

Upright,  with  the  breast  thrown 
forward  and  the  shoulders  back- 
ward, as  we  see  in  the  picture. 
Why  is  this  position  the  most  healthy  ? 
Because  it  gives  free  action  to 
the  circulation,  the  ribs,  the  lungs, 
and  other  vital  parts  of  the  body. 
What  does  stooping  cause  ? 

It  causes  short  breathing,  pain  in  the  chest,  and  a  mean 
diminutive  appearance. 

Will  a  person  stand  more  at  ease,  labor  better  and  more  quickly,  and 
travel  further  in  a  day,  whose  position  is  erect,  than  one  possibly  can  who 
stoops  or  bends  forward  ? 

Yes ;  the  body  and  limbs  being  in  a  proper  balance,  less 
effort  is  required  to  do  these  things. 
Which  is  the  most  correct  position  for  speaking,  reading  aloud,  or  singing  ? 

A  firm,  upright  position,  the  person  standing,  not  sitting. 
If  we  eat  good  food,  and  exercise  freely  in  the  open  air,  shall  we  a  Iways 
have  good  health  ? 

No,  it  is  necessary  that  all  our  habits  should  be  good  also. 
What  are  habits  ? 

There  are  different  ways  of  doing  the  same  thing,  and 
when  we  become  accustomed  to  any  particular  way,  by  fre- 
quent practice  of  it,  it  is   then  called  a  habit.     Habits  when 
long  continued,  are  very  difficult  to  change. 
Name  one  of  the  habits  most  important  for  the  promotion  of  health  ? 
The  habit  of  eating  moderately  is  one.     If  you  swallow 


16  MUSCULAR  EFFECTS  OF  HABIT. 


j  your  food,  without  chewing  it  much,  it  will  do  you  but  little 
good.  You  can  not  long  have  good  health,  if  you  eat  too 
fast.  Your  teeth  were  given  you  to  be  used,  in  preparing 
food  for  your  stomach.  Your  mouth  is  like  a  mill,  and  noth- 
ing must  be  allowed  to  pass  through  it,  without  being  ground 
very  finely. 

What  other  important  habit  will  you  tell  me  about  now  ? 
The  habit  of  sitting  and  standing  erect,  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one.  Some  children  are  always  leaning  on  one  side,  or 
lounging  over  chairs  and  sofas.  They  weaken  their  backs 
and  limbs  in  this  way,  and  acquire  an  awkward  figure  and 
gait,  which  they  can  never  afterward  correct.  The  back-bone 
was  made  to  support  the  body ;  and  if  we  allow  it  always  to 
do  so,  without  constantly  leaning,  or  stooping,  it  will  always 
be  firm  and  strong. 


»-/• 

t! 


Proper  Position.  An  Improper  Position. 

What  evil  consequences  result  from  the  habit  of  stooping  and  leaning  ? 

The  ribs  are  crowded  together,  and  the  natural  action  of 
all  the  vital  organs  of  the  body  are  disturbed. 
Can  you  mention  any  'Other  habits  ? 

Order  and  regularity  are  of  great  importance.  So,  also, 
are  early  rising,  cleanliness,  and  industry. 

Which  part  of  the  body  needs  to  be  most  carefully  guarded  from  cold  and  J! 
damp  iveather  ? 

The  feet  should  always   be   protected  with  special  care. 
"  Keep  the  feet  warm  and  the  head  cool,  you  will  always  find  j'< 
a  wholesome  rule." 
What !  should  not  the  head  and  neck  be  guarded  more  than  the  feet  ? 

No ;  there  is  much  less  danger  from  exposing  the  head 
than  the  feet.  Thin  shoes  and  thin  stockings  are  deadly  foes 
to  health  and  beauty. 

Are  not  many  people  in  the  habit  of  bundling  tip  the  neck  with  furs,  thus 
keeping  the  head  and  neck  very  warm  ? 

Yes ;  and  they  are  usually  complaining  of  headaches,  sore 
throats,  or  coughs.  As  a  general  rule,  take  good  care  of  the 
feet,  and  the  head  will  take  care  of  itself. 


THE    SKIN.  17 


LESSON  FIFTH. 

The  Skin,  or  Covering  of  the  Human  Body. 
What  is  the  human  skin  t  . 

It  is  that  which  covers  the  body,  as  bark  covers  a  tree. 
Has  a  person  more  than  one  skin  ? 

Every  person  has  three  skins ;  the  innermost  one  of  the 
three  is  called  the  real  skin. 
Of  what  is  this  real  under  skin  composed  f 

It  is  composed  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  which  cross 
each   other    in  every  direction.      These    blood-vessels    and 
nerves  run  so  near  to  each  other,  that  they  appear  to  have 
been  woven  through  in  a  net-work. 
7s  this  skin  strong  and  elastic  ? 

It  is,  and  can  be  stretched  like  a  piece  of  India-rubber. 
7s  the  under  or  teal  skin  of  the  same  color  on  every  person  ? 

It  is  in  every  respect  the  same. 
Then  why  is  it  that  the  skin  of  some  people  is  black  and  of  others  ivhite  ? 

Over  this  under-skin,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  there  is 
another  skin  which  is  quite  thin,  and  all  over  this  thin  skin 
is  spread  something  which  looks  like  jelly ;  and  it  is  this  jelly 
matter  which  gives  color.  In  white  persons  this  jelly  sub- 
stance is  white ;  in  the  negro  it  is  black ;  and  in  the  Indian  it 
is  copper-colored. 
Has  the  color  of  this  substance  ever  been  known  to  change  in  any  one  ? 

A  single  instance,  or  a  "  freak  of  nature,"  as  it  is  called,  is 
related  of  a  woman  once  wholly  black,  whose  face,  arms,  and 
body,  became  in  after-life,  nearly  covered  with  white  spots, 
about  the  size  of  a  half-dollar ;  a  few  of  them  were  larger. 
What  can  you  say  of  the  outside  skin? 

It  is  very  thin,  but  not  equally  so  over  the  whole  body ;  for 
on  the  hands  and  bottom  of  the  feet  it  is  much  thicker,  and 
sometimes  very  hard  and  tough. 
If  a  piece  of  this  outside  skin  is  peeled  or  cut  off,  will  it  grow  again  ? 

Yes,  in  a  short  time ;  but  if  the  under,  or  real,  skin  is  cut 
off  or  destroyed,  it  will  not  grow  again. 
If  you  cut  or  destroy  the  outside  skin  will  pain  be  felt,  or  blood  appear  ? 

No  ;  neither  of  them. 
Upon  whose  hands  do  we  find  this  outside  skin  the  thickest  ? 

Upon  the  hands  of  farmers,  masons,  sailors,  laborers,  and 
others,  who  are  employed  in  laborious  occupations. 
Why  is  this  so  ? 
By  constant  labor  with  the  hands  the  outer  skin  becomes 


harder,  thicker,  and  tougher,  and  thus  the  inner  real  skin,  V, 
which  is  tender  and  easily  injured,  is  protected  in  handling  jh 
hard  and  rough  things.  The  more  the  exposure,  the  greater  i|) 
becomes  the  protection.  "  In  wisdom  has  He  made  them  alL 

Does  the  jelly  matter  which  gives  color  to  the  skin,  appear  again,  if  it  is  , 
cut  or  torn  away  ?  . 

Yes  ;  it  appears  as  soon  as  the  outside  skin  is  restored. 
Is  the  thin  outside  skin  very  firm  and  tight  ?  \\\) 

Yes,  and  full  of  little  holes,  or  pores,  as  they  are  called. 
These  pores  are  so  numerous  and  near  to  each  other  that  you 
can  not  put  between  any  of  them  the  point  of  the  finest  nee- 
dle. Their  number  on  the  surface  of  the  skin  has  been  esti- 
mated to  be  several  millions. 
What  are  these  pores,  and  what  is  their  use  ? 

They  are  the  mouths  of  little  tubes,  sometimes   called  the  • 
perspiratory  ducts  ;  and  they  carry  off  in  the  form  of  perspi- 
ration, much  of  the  refuse  matter  of  the  body ;  matter  which 
having  been  rejected  by  the  organs,  is  very  injurious  to  remain 
in  the  system.     A  full-grown  healthy  person  throws  off  from 
two  to  three  pounds  of  this  matter  every  twenty-four  hours. 
What  is  a  cold,  and  its  effects  on  the  health  ? 

It  is  the  stoppage  of  this  rejected  matter  which  ought  to 
pass  off  through  the  pores.  Sometimes  it  gets  back  to  the 
lungs ;  and  then  it  produces  a  cough,  and  is  thrown  out  in  the 
form  of  phlegm.  Sometimes  it  goes  to  the  head  and  produ- 
ces the  feeling  of  fullness  of  the  head,  headache,  sneezing,  &c. 
Which  is  the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  a  cold  ? 

Open  the  pores  again  by  warm  bathing  and  rubbing  the 
skin  vigorously,  with  a  coarse  towel,  or  flesh-brush.     The 
1  *  current  of  action  will  soon  return  from  the  inward  to  the  out- 
ward parts  of  the  body,  and  the  system  will  be  thus  relieved. 
While  we  have  a  cold,  we  should  eat  sparingly,  particularly 
of  animal  food,  and  take  as  much  exercise  as  the  strength  of 
the  constitution  will  permit. 
Can  you  tell  why  the  skin  is  so  full  of  these  little  holes  or  pores  ? 

Yes ;  to  let  the  useless  noxious  matter  that  has  been  reject- 
ed by  the  digestive  and  secretive  organs,  pass  off. 
In  what  form  does  this  matter  escape  ? 

In  the  form  of  sweat,  or  perspiration,  and  of  a  very  thin 
vapor  which  should  be  kept  uninterruptedly  flowing  out  of  the 
body  from  every  part. 
What  follows,  then,  when  these  pores  become  closed? 

Pains,  cough,  headache,  irritation  and  burning  sensation  of 
the  skin,  and  sickness  in  various  forms. 


1 


THE    SKIN.  19 


Why  do  these  ills  follow  ? 

The  reason   is,  as   already  stated,   the   poisonous   matter 
which  should  depart  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  is  retained 
in  the  body. 
In  what  other  way  do  these  pores  sometimes  become  stopped  ? 

By  not  keeping  the  body  clean.     We  should  wash  freely 
and  rub  with  a  coarse  towel,  the  entire  body  every  day. 

Do  persons  usually  have  good  health  ivho  neglect  washing  themselves  all 
over  frequently  ? 

Some  do,  for  a  time,  but  they  generally,  sooner  or  later, 
suffer  for  the  neglect, 
Should  cold  or  warm  water  be  used  in  washing  the  body  ? 

Cold  water  is  thought  to  be  the  best  for  persons  in  health ; 
and  a  coarse  towel,  or  flesh-brush  should  be  used  in  all  cases, 
not  merely  to  dry  the  surface,  but  to  excite  the  skin  to  action, 
and  produce  that  fine  glow  which  is  the  proof  of  benefit  from 
tlie  whole  operation. 
What  part  of  the  day  is  the  best  for  bathing  ? 

The  morning.     Yet  a  person  in  good  health  and  of  a  good 
constitution  may  take  a  bath  at  any  hour,  excepting  just  after 
(i|  a  hearty  meal. 

id     7f  people  were  more  particular  to  keep  their  skin  in  a  clean,  healthy  state, 
r'   would  they  suffer  as  much  as  they  do  from  colds  and  sore  throats  ? 

No,  they  would  not. 
What  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  modes  of  bathing  ? 

In  the  morning,  on  leaving  bed,  step 
into  an  empty  tub,  and  having  placed  a 
basin  of  water  within  reach,  pour  it  on 
the  body  with  the  hands,  or  from  a  sponge, 
.•^,y|-  ;,|||  or  a  towel,  rubbing  the  flesh  at  the  same 
time.  Continue  this  for  a  minute  or  two, 
then  rub  the  whole  surface  vigorously, 
with  a  dry  and  coarse  towel,  till  the  body 
is  all  in  a  pleasant  glow,  then  dress  im- 
mediately. 

This  is  a  simple  mode  of  bathing,  con- 
sumes but  very  little  time,  and  all  it  costs  is  only  a  small 
degree  of  resolution  at  the  outset ;  for  after  the  practice  has 
once  been  adopted  and  become  a  habit,  it  is  so  agreeable  and 
is  felt  to  be  so  beneficial  that  few  will  be  willing  to  forego  it. 
What  is  the  best  sort  of  cosmetic  to  freshen  the  complexion  and  produce  a 
cheerful  countenance  ? 

This  kind  of  bathing  and  purification  of  the  skin;  and  not 
powders,  paints,  or  drugs  of  any  kind. 


a 


20  THE    BRAIN. 


LESSON  SIXTH. 

The  Brain  and  the  Mind  of  Man. 

Has  each  part  of  the  system  its  own  work  to  perform  ? 

Yes.     The  business  of  the  lungs  is  to  draw  in  the  air  to 
purify  the  blood,  the  business  of  the  stomach  is  to  receive  and 
digest  the  food,  which  is  afterward  converted  into  blood,  &c. 
What  is  the  great  business  or  function  of  the  brain  ? 
To  manifest  the  mind.     It  is  the  organ  or  instrument  by 
which  the  mind  performs  all  its  operations. 
Is  the  brain,  then,  the  mind  ? 
No.     The  eye  is  not  sight,  because  it  is  used  in  seeing,  nor 


is  the  ear,  hearing,  but  the  organ  of  hearing.  The  brain, 
likewise,  is  not  the  mind,  but  the  organ  of  the  mind,  or  seat 
|  of  the  intellectual  and  reasoning  faculties  of  man,  such  as 
|  thought,  memory,  hope,  love,  hatred,  ambition,  &c.  In  brute 
animals  the  brain  is  the  organ  of  what  is  called  instinct. 
Of  what  is  the  brain  composed  ? 

Of  matter  which  is  subject  to  decay. 
What  is  mind? 

It  is  not  matter,  but  the  spirit  which  animates  matter,  and 
which  will  live  for  ever. 
How  many  things  are  necessary  in  order  to  see  an  object  ? 

Five.     An  object,  light,  an  eye,  a  nerve  running  from  the 
eye  to  the  brain,  and  the  brain. 

Suppose  there  is  an  object,  light,  an  eye,  and  a  nerve,  and  no  brain,  can 
fij  an  object  be  seen  ? 

No.     The  brain  is  the  seat  of  all  sensation  and  knowledge. 
And  the   mind   acquires  a  knowledge  of  outward   objects, 
through  its  mysterious  connection  with  the  brain. 
Does  a  proper  use  of  the  mind  strengthen  the  brain  ? 

Yes.     The  more  the  brain  is  exercised,  if  not  overtasked, 
the  more  prompt  and  vigorous  will  be  the  operations  of  the 
mind. 
What  will  be  the  effect  if  the  brain  is  permitted  to  remain  inactive  ? 

It  will  lose  its  healthy  state,  and  all  the  operations  of  the 
mind  must,  in  consequence,  be  dull  and  feeble. 
7s  the  brain  active  or  inactive  during  a  state  of  sound  sleep  ? 

It  is  inactive.     A  person  may  be  touched  while  in  a  state 
of  sound  sleep,  and  not  perceive  it,  or  be  conscious  of  it. 
I     If  an  injury  comes  to  the  brain  what  will  be  the  effect  ? 

The  whole  system  will  become  instantly  affected,  and  if  the 
f|  brain  be  seriously  injured  death  will  at  once  or  soon  ensue. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


LESSON  SEVENTH. 

The  Nervous  System. 

What  does  this  picture  represent  ? 
It  represents  a  head,  with  the  scalp 
turned  down,  the  top  part  of  the  skull 
removed,  the  membrane  raised,  and  the 
brain  exposed. 
What  is  the  scalp  and  its  use  ? 
It  is  the  covering  of  the  skull,  composed 
of  fat,  muscle,  and   skin,   out   of  which 
grows  a  thick  body  of  hair,  serving  to 
protect  the  skull  from  injury. 

Where  is  the  brain  situated  ? 
The  brain  is  in  the  head,  occupying  the  whole  inner  part  or 
cavity  of  the  skull,  but  separated  from  it  by  a  thin  membrane. 
Of  what  is  the  brain  composed  ? 

Of  a  soft  pulpy  substance  resembling  marrow,  filled  with 
blood-vessels,  the  whole  having  a  grayish  color. 
How  large  is  the  brain  in  a  grown  person  ? 

It  is  about  six  inches  long,  five  inches  wide,  and  four  inch- 
es thick.     It  weighs  from  three  to  four  pounds,  and  will  fill 
the  two  hands  of  a  man. 
Has  a  person  more  than  one  brain? 

Yes,  there  are  two  brains ;  a  large  one  called  the  cerebrum, 
and  another  about  one  eighth  as  large,  below  and  behind  it, 
which  is  called  the  cerebellum.  , These  two  brains  are  equally 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  deep  cut  or  separation,  reaching 
nearly  through  them  from  front  to  back.  These  halves  of 
each  brain  are  precisely  alike  in  shape,  and  together  form  a 
pair  of  brains,  just  as  we  have  a  pair  of  eyes  and  ears. 
Does  all  of  the  substance  called  the  brain  lie  .in  the  head  ? 

No  ;  small  portions  of  it  run  off  in  every  direction,  from 
the  top  of  the  head  to  the  extremities  of  the  body. 
What  are  these  parts  of  the  brain  which  run  through  the  body  called? 
They  are  called  nerves,  which  together  form  what  is  called 
the  nervous  system. 
What,  then,  is  the  nervous  system  ? 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  those  parts  of  the  brain 
which,  in  small  strings,  extend  throughout  the  whole  body. 
Are  all  the  nerves  connected  with  the  brain  ? 

They  are,  for  each  nerve  is  but  a  part  or  extension  of  the 
substance  of  the  brain. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


Where  do  we  find  the  nerves  ? 

In  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  in  the  toes,  and  in  every  part  of 
the  human  body. 

Which  is  the  largest  nerve  in  the  body  ? 

The  spinal  marrow. 
Where  K  this  situated  ? 

In  the  centre  of  the  spine,  or 
back-bone ;  extending  from  the 
middle  of  the  brain,  down  be- 
tween the  ears,  and  through  the 
neck. 

Does  this  large  nerve  send  out  small  ones 
through  the  body  ? 

Yes,  it  does  in  great  numbers. 
Small   parts   of   the   brain   also 
branch  off  to  the  ears,  eyes,  nose, 
tongue,  &c. 
Of  what  use  are  nerves  ? 

They  give  us  feeling.  "With- 
out nerves  we  should  be  without 
feeling.  If  no  nerve  connected 
the  eye  with  the  brain,  we  could 
not  see ;  neither  could  we  smell 
nor  taste  if  no  nerve  connected 
with  the  nose  or  the  tongue. 
If  a  nerve  is  cut  or  destroyed  what  will  be  the  effect  ? 

The  organ  to  which  it  is  attached  ceases  its  function  entirety. 
When  we  feel  the  prick  of  a  pin  tahy  do  we  suffer  pain  ? 

Because  the  pm  pierces  a  nerve.     If  an  animal  had  no 
nerves  you  might  pound  or  bruise  it,  and  it  would  feel  no  pain. 
Are  there  any  animals  or  insects  without  nerves  ? 

No.    It  was  formerly  supposed  that  some  insects  were  des- 
titute of  nerves,  but  recent  investigations  have  clearly  shown 
that  all  insects  possess  a  nervous  system. 
Have  nerves  am/  other  i<se  than  to  give  us  feeling  ? 

Yes ;  we  have  two  prominent  classes  of  nerves ;  one  of 
feeling  and  the  other  of  motion.  Otfe  class  of  the  nerves 
causes  us  to  feel,  and  the  other  class  causes  the  muscles  to 
move.  Thus  in  raising  the  arm,  the  nerve  connecting  the 
brain  with  the  muscle  carries  the  wish  of  the  mind  to  it,  and 
the  muscle  contracts  or  expands  compelling  the  bone  of  the 
arm  to  move.  There  are  also  nerves  connecting  with  the 
brain,  all  the  various  functions  of  the  system,  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  breathing,  the  digestion  of  food,  &c. 


THE    SENSE    OF    TOUCH.  23 


LESSON  EIGHTH. 

The  Sense  of  Touch  or  Feeling. 

When  I  press  my  finger  against  the  point  of  a  pin,  pain  or 
rather  the  sensation  of  pain  is  felt.     Many  people  would  say 
that  they  felt  the  pin ;  but  pain  is  felt  as  well  as  the  pin.    The 
prick  or  pain  tells  me  the  pin  is  there. 
What  is  the  cause  of  this  feeling,  or  sensation  as  it  is  called  ? 

The  pin  touches  a  nerve,  and  the  nerve  carries  the  impres- 
sion, made  by  the  pin,  to  the  brain. 
When  ant/thing  touches  the  body,  what  is  produced ? 

An  outward  or  external  feeling  or  sensation. 
Are  there  any  inward  or  internal  feelings  ?  ^ 

]        Yes,  hunger  and  thirst  are  internal  feelings. 
How  many  kinds  of  feelings,  then^  have  we  ? 

Two.     External  feeling  caused  by  something  touching  the 
body,  and  internal  feeling,  caused  by  hunger,  thirst,  &c. 

The  external  feelings  are  called  senses,  and  are  five  in 
number,  viz.,  seeing,  hearing,  feeling  or  sense  of  touch,  tasting, 
and  smelling. 
If  ice  could  neither  see,  feel,  taste,  hear,  nor  smell,  what  should  we  be? 

We  should  be  human  beings  in  form  only,  without  the 
power  of  self  protection.     Instances  are  related,  however, 
in  which  persons  had  but  the  sense  of  touch  in  perfection,  and 
yet  exhibited  intelligence,  and  were  able  to  express   their 
wants  and  desires.     The  loss  of  one  sense  is  generally  at- 
tended with  greater  acuteness  in  the  remaining  senses. 
What  is  the  duty  and  office  of  the  senses  ? 
To  convey  knowledge  to  the  mind  through  the  nerves. 
How  does  feeling,  or  sense  of  touch,  for  instance,  carry  this  to  the  mind? 

The  sense  of  touch  or  feeling,  like  all  of  the  other  senses, 
is  on  the  outside,  and  gives  warning  to  the  mind  when  any- 
thing comes  in  contact  with  the  body. 
What  is  the  object  of  this  warning  ? 

To  keep  us  from  harm.     If  we  had,  for  instance,  no  feeling  jj[ 
in  our  feet  we  should  be  likely  to  put  them  into  water  so  hot 
as  to  blister  and  even  destroy  them  ;  as  did  once  happen  to  a  • 
man  who  had  lost  the  sense  of  touch  in  his  feet. 
How  do  we  know  rough  from  smooth,  cold  from  hot,  sharp  from  blunt? 
By  the  sense  of  touch,  or  the  sensation  produced  upon  the 


mind  through  the  agency  of  the  nerves  and  brajn. 
Is  the  sense  of  touch  more  acute  in  healthy  than  in  diseased  persons  ? 
Yes.    The  purer  the  blood  the  more  acute  are  all  the  senses.  ' 


24  THE    SENSE    OF   TOUCH. 


Can  we  tell  how  much  heat  there  is  in  anything  by  this  sense  of  touch  ? 

Not  exactly ;  for  a  piece  of  iron  will  feel  colder  than  a 
piece  of  woollen  cloth,  though  both  the  iron  and  cloth  have 
the  same  degree  of  heat  in  them. 
Bow  is  this  ?       Why  does  the  iron  feel  colder  ? 

The  hand  has  more  heat  in  it  than  either  the  iron  or  the 
cloth.     But  the  iron  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  hand  much 
faster  than  the  cloth,  and  thus  seems  coldest  to  the  hand. 
Why  does  iron  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  cloth  ? 
Because  the  iron  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat.     The  sense 
of  touch,  therefore",  does  not  tell  us  the  exact  quantity  of 
heat  in  every  object. 
Can  we  blunt  or  abuse  the  sense  of  touch  ? 

We  can  to  a  considerable  degree.     Persons  in  the  constant 
practice  of  handling  hot  articles  benumb  the  sense  of  touch  to 
|  that  degree  that  they  can  endure  a  great  heat  without  incon- 
venience to  themselves.     This  can  also  be  done  by  artificial 
means.     M.  Chabert,  a  Frenchman,  could  by  some  process  or 
application  dip  his  hands  into  melted  lead  or  boiling  oil  with- 
out  any  apparent  injury  to  himself. 
Are  some  people  more  sensitive  in  their  feelings  than  others  ? 

Yes ;  some  are  very  sensitive,  that  is,  have  very  quick,  nice 
feelings  ;  others  have  but  little  ability  to  distinguish  by  feeling. 
Where  is  the  sense  of  touch  the  keenest  ? 

On  the  inside  of  the  fingers,  and  very  near  their  ends, 
where  the  ends  of  the  nerves  are  collected  into  loops  or  coils, 
called  papilla.  This  sense  is  also  very  acute,  in  the  palms 
of  the  hands,  in  the  lips  and  tongue,  and  in  the  soles  or  un- 
der side  of  the  feet. 

How  are  the  blind  enabled  to  read  ? 

By  passing  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond finger  over  letters   raised   a 
little  from  the  page  of  books  made 
for  their  particular  use. 
fijl  II  9|^^I^H       What  was  the  opinion  of  M.  Bujfon,  the 

|    great  naturalist  ? 

I  BHHHHHuHHuBl        He  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
||  the  reason  why  one  person  knows  more  than  another,  is,  that 
J  he  has  made  a  better  use  of  his  hands.     Mr.  Mudie,  another 
naturalist,  has  truly  said,  that  there  is  a  mine  of  wealth  in  the 
ends  of  the  fingers. 
'     May  the  sense  of  touch  be  greatly  improved  ? 

Yes ;  the  blind,  who  have  to  see  with  their  fingers,  can  dis- 
tingish,  it  is  said,  the  color  of  cloths,  &c.,  by  the  sense  of  touch. 


THE    SENSE    OF    TASTE.  25 

m 

How  can  this  be  satisfactorily  explained  ? 

The  color  of  a  thing  is  supposed  to  affect  the  texture  of  its 
surface,  and  by  a  close  attention  with  the  fingers,  to  this 
texture,  its  color  may  be  inferred. 

What  organs  Jiave  animals  and  insects  tJiat  resemble  the  human  fingers,  in 
delicacy  of  feeling  ? 

The  nose  of  some  quadrupeds.  The  end  of  the  elephant's 
trunk  seems  to  be  possessed  of  as  acute  a  sense  of  feeling  as 
the  human  fingers ;  and  insects  have  this  sense  placed  in  little 
horns  projecting  from  both  sides  of  their  heads,  called  feelers  ; 
with  these  they  examine  the  surfaces  over  which  they  travel. 


LESSON  NINTH. 
The  Tongue,  or  the  Sense  of  Taste. 

In  ivhat  part  of  the  mouth  does  the  sense  of  taste 
chiefly  lie  ? 

On  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue. 
Branches  of  the  nerve  of  taste,  are  also 
spread  over  the  palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth, 
and  on  the  inside  of  the  cheeks  and  lips. 

If  ive  had  no  tongue,  would  all  our  food  taste 
alike  to  us  ? 

Nearly  so.     To  aid  us   in  talking,  is 
not  the  only  use  of  the  tongue.     By  its 
means  we  experience  much  of  the  grati- 
fication we  enjoy,  in  eating  and  drinking.     Nor  are  these  all 
the  uses  of  this  very  flexible,  busy,  little  organ.     We  could 
not  move  the  food  in  our  mouths,  so  as  to  chew  it  thoroughly, 
nor  could  we  swallow  it,  without  the  aid  of  the  tongue. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  that  part  of  tJie  tongue  in  which  the  sense  of 
taste  is  situated  ? 

|       It  is  covered  with  numberless  little  loops,  or  doublings  of 


? 


the  ends  of  the  nervous  threads,  called  papillae,  which  rise 
above  the  surface,  and  give  it  the  appearance  of  velvet. 
What  is  the  condition  of  the  tongue  in  health  ? 

It  is  always  kept  moist  by  the  constant  but  moderate  action 
of  the  saliva,  commonly  called  spittle. 
What  takes  place  in  fevers  ? 

The  tongue  and  mouth  become  dry  and  hard,  the  fluid,  or 
saliva,  not  being  there  to  moisten  the  parts. 
Why  have  we  little  or  no  taste  when  we  are  sick  ? 

Because  the  tongue  is  dry,  and  covered  with  a  fur,  or  coat 
of  scaly  matter. 


26  THE    SENSE    OF    SMELL. 

Does  this  scaly,  furry  coat,  cover  up  the  nerves  ? 

It  does ;  and  this  shows  that  the  sense  of  taste  resides 

chiefly  in  the  papillae  or  nerves  of  the  tongue. 

Does  great  attention  to  what  we  eat  and  drink,  lead  us  to  neglect  the  mind?  |tt 

Yes  ;  in  two  ways.     It  occupies  time  which  might  be  much  K 

better  employed,  and  produces  tastes  and  habits  unfavorable    ' 

to  both  intellectual  and  moral  improvement. 

May  the  sense  of  taste  be  abused  and  almost  destroyed  ? 

We  may  greatly  impair,  if  not  wholly  destroy,  its  power 
of  discrimination,  by  the  excessive  use  of  spirituous  liquors, 
tobacco,  and  other  things  to  which  it  is  naturally  averse.  Cli- 
mates also  affect  the  taste ;  in  cold  countries  the  most  offen- 
sive oils  are  partaken  of  with  relish ;  while  in  warmer  coun- 
tries, Asia  and  Africa,  for  instance,  there  are  people  who 
have  a  preference  for  putrid  meats,  stale  eggs,  &c.,  deeming 
them  their  most  desirable  food. 
How  does  the  use  of  tobacco  injure  the  taste  ? 

Tobacco  belongs  to  the  class  of  poisonous  plants,  and  the 
papilla3  of  the  tongue  being  habitually  covered  with  its  very 
sharp  and  irritating  juice,   gradually  lose    their  sensibility. 
Spirituous  liquors  act  precisely  in  the  same  way. 
Do  all  animals  have  the  sense  of  taste  ? 

Yes ;  and  in  some  of  them  it  is  keener  than  it  is  in  man.  w 

Animals  know  what   plants  are  poisonous  to  them  by  the  ]' 

sense  of  taste  and  smell,  or  by  instinct ;  and  most  of  them  I 

will  avoid  even  the  taste  of  tobacco  or  intoxicating  liquors.      I 

How  can  we  preserve  this  sense  from  injury,  and  in  its  natural  state  ? 

By  eating  plain,  nutritious  food,  and  such  only  as  is  agree- 
able to  us  at  first. 


LESSON  TENTH. 

The  Nose,  or  the  Sense  of  SmelL 


In  what  part  of  the  none  is  the  sense  of 
smell  placed  ? 

In  the  inside  of  the  two  passa-  , 
ges  of  the  nose  called  nostrils. 

What  is  the  inner  surface  of  each  nostril 
lined  with  ? 

With   a  thin   membrane,   over  , 
which  the  branches  of  the  nerve 
of  smell  are  spread,  and  which  are 

kept  constantly  moist  in  their  natural  state  with  a  thin  fluid 
called  mucus.  111,1 


@ 


THE    SENSE    OF   HEARING. 


27 


What  is  the  use  of  this  thin  fluid  or  mucus  t 

It  keeps  the  branches  of  the  nerve  of  smell  in  perfect 
order,  and  protects  them  from  harm.  It  also  catches  the  odor- 
ous or  noxious  particles  which  are  drawn  into  the  nostrils 
with  the  air,  and  are  thereby  prevented  from  being  carried 
deeper  into  the  head  where  they  would  be  an  injury.  By 
the  act  of  sneezing  these  particles  are  ejected  from  the  nostrils. 
If  this  fluid  is  not  supplied  what  is  the  consequence  f 

The  nerve  of  smell  receives  no  impression,  and  the  sense 
of  smell  is  suspended  so  long  as  the  fluid  is  withheld, 
What  destroys  the  mucus,  or  prevents  the  secretion  of  it  f 

The  use  of  snuff.     Snuff-takers  sometimes  lose  this  sense 
wholly  and  irrecoverably. 
What  other  bad  effect  has  snuff-taking  ? 

It  injures  the  voice  very  much,  by  obstructing  the  pass-age 
of  the  air  through  the  nostrils. 

If  we  hold  a  rose  to  the  face,  close  the  nose,  and  breathe  only  through  the 
mouth,  will  an  odor  be  perceived  ? 

No ;  the  mouth  can  not  smell  any  more  than  the  eyes  can 
hear,  or  the  nose  can  see. 
How  do  objects  communicate  to  us  their  smell  or  odor  f 

By  means  of  the  minute  particles  which  flow  from  them, 
as  vapor  passes  off  from  water ;  these  minute  particles  are 
drawn  into  the  nose  with  the  air  we  breathe. 
Can  we  see  these  minute  particles  ? 
No  ;  they  are  too  minute  to  be  visible  to  the  eye. 
What  animals  usually  have  large  nostrils  ? 

Those  which  are  remarkable  for  the  keenest  sense  of  smell, 
like  the  deer,  dog,  &c. 

LESSON  ELEVENTH. 
The  Bar,  or  the  Sense  of  Hearing. 

What  makes  sound? 
The  jarring  or  vibration  given 
to  an  object  by  striking  it.  If  a 
bell  is  struck  with  a  hammer,  a 
trembling  motion  can  be  seen  in 
the  bell  for  a  short  time  afterward. 
This  tremulous  motion  is  called 
vibration  or  sound. 

What  has  vibration  to  do  with  the  production  of  sound  ? 

The   quivering,   trembling   bell,    gives   numerous    sudden 

strokes  to  the  air,  which  is  thus  put  in  motion,  causing  sound. 


28  THE    SENSE    OF   HEARING. 


Describe  the  kind  of  motion  which  is  thus  given  to  the  air. 

A  circular  waving  motion.  If  a  stone  is  dropped  into  a 
pool  of  still  water,  little  waves  or  circles,  one  after  the  other, 
will  run  out  in  every  direction.  In  the  same  way,  when  the 
bell  quivers,  numerous  slight  waves  are  made  in  the  air. 
These  waves  are  called  vibrations,  or  undulations  of  the  air. 

Hoio  do  these  vibrations  convey  the  sense  of  sound  to  the  brain  ?  ]V 

By  striking  against  the  drum  of  the  ear.     The  sound  from 
a  musical  wind-instrument  reaches  the  ear  in  the  same  way. 
A  flute  or  horn  being  blown  into  with  energy,  undulations  or  > 
waves  of  the  air  are  produced,  which  convey  the  sound  to 
the  drum  of  the  ear,  and  thence  it  reaches  the  brain. 

What  is  the  drum  of  the  ear,  and  its  construction  ? 
It  is  a  very  delicate,  elastic  membrane,  spread  across  the 
inner  end  of  the  ear-passage,  as  the  drum-head  is  stretched 
across  the  end  of  a  drum. 

How  far  within  the  passage  or  ear-hole  is  this  drum  ? 
About  one  inch. 

How  is  the  passage  to  the  drum  guarded  against  the  intrusion  of  insects, 
and  the  accumulation  of  dust  ? 

It  is  protected  from  injury  by  two  methods ;  first,  by  a 
growth  of  short,  stiff  hairs,  all  along  the  entrance,  standing 
up  like  a  picketed  fence,  to  keep  out  intraders  ;  and,  secondly, 
by  a  bitter  wax,  which  is  constantly  secreted  about  the  roots 
of  these  hairs,  and  which  is  offensive  to  all  insects. 

When  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  struck  by  the  air  being  set  in  motion,  how  is 
the  sound  conveyed  to  the  mind? 

The  membrane  vibrates  in  unison  with  the  motion.     These 
vibrations  are  communicated  to  the  brain,  through  the  nerves, 
and  are  thus  perceived  by  the-  mind. 
Does  anything  else  convey  sound  besides  the  air  ? 

Yes  ;  water  is  even  a  better  conductor  of  sound  than  air ; 
that  is,  we  can  hear  further  through  water  than  through  air. 
Wood  is  also  a  good  conductor  of  sound. 
How  fast  does  sound  travel  through  the  air  ? 

Eleven  hundred  and  fifty-two  feet  in  a  second,  or  a  little 
more  than  a  mile  in  five  seconds,  and  nearly  thirteen  miles  in 
a  minute.     Sound  travels  four  times  as  fast  in  water  as  in  air. 
Can  hearing  be  much  improved  by  cultivation  ? 

Yes,  like  all  the  other  senses,  it  may  be  greatly  improved. 

How  kindly  and  wisely  the  air  is  made.  Its  slight  vibra- 
tions, reaching  the  ear,  notify  us  of  the  neighborhood  of  ob- 
jects and  occurrences ;  the  approach  of  danger,  and  of  succor ; 
and  this,  too,  when  darkness,  or  intervening  object,  do  not 


permit  the  eyes  to  see  them ;  or,  when  the  eyes  are  shut  fast 
in  sleep,  it  rouses  us  to  wakefulness  and  circumspection. 

Without  air  we  could  not  breathe,  nor  would  the  blood  have 
either  health  or  warmth ;  our  fuel  would  not  burn,  nor  our 
lamps  give  light ;  without  air,  we  could  hold  no  converse  with 
friends,  or  receive  delight  from  "  the  concord  of  sweet  sounds ;" 
the  murmur  of  the  brooks  would  cease,  the  roar  of  the  cata- 
ract would  be  hushed,  and  the  "  voice  of  Jehovah"  in  the  111 
J'  thunder-storm  would  become  mute  for  ever. 


LESSON  TWELFTH. 
The  Eye,  or  the  Sense  of  Sight. 

What  is  necessary  to  the  senses  of  touch, 
taste,  and  smell  ? 

The  object  must  be  present,  to 
meet  the  skin,  mouth,  or  nostrils. 

How  does  the  sense  of  sight,  differ  from 
these  three  senses  ? 

By  the  sense  of  sight  an  object 
can  be  perceived  at  a  greater  or 
less  distance.     It   is  not  necessary  that  it  should  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  eye,  in  order  to  be  seen. 
7s  the  eye,  then,  an  organ  of  a  hie/her  order,  and  more  ingenious  in  its  con- 
struction, than  the  organs  of  the  other  senses  ? 

Yes,  it  is ;  and  this  sense  contributes  more  to  the  enjoyment 
and  happiness  of  mankind  than  any  other  of  the  senses.  In 
its  construction  it  exhibits  the  perfection  of  infinite  knowl- 
edge. The  utmost  effort  of  human  skill  has  as  yet  invented 
but  an  imperfect  imitation  of  this  organ. 
How  can  you  describe  the  structure  of  the  eye  f 

The  globe,  or  ball  of  the  eye,  has  three  coats  or  coverings 
around  it,  the  same  as  a  ball  with  three  covers,  and  is  placed 
in  a  deep  bony  socket  in  the  skull. 
What  is  the  little  round  dot  in  the  centre  of  the  eye  called  ? 
The  pupil  of  the  eye,  through  which  objects  are  visible. 
What  is  the  color  of  the  outside  covering  of  the  eye  ? 
White  ;  this  is  what  is  called  the  "  white  of  the  eye."     It 
is  quite  hard,  and  to  it  are  fastened  the  muscles  which  move 
the  eye  in  any  direction  desired  by  the  will. 
What  is  spread  over  the  inside  of  the  middle  covering  of  the  eye  ? 

A  layer  of  very  dark  colored  matter,  which  absorbs  and 
softens  the  rays  of  light,  after  they  enter  the  eye. 


30  THE    SENSE    OF    SIGHT.  *| 

What  is  the  third  or  innermost  covering  of  the  eye  ? 

It  i-  a  flattening  out  or  expansion  of  the  nerve  which  con- 
nects the  eye  with  the  brain,  and  is  the  immediate  seat  of  sight.  • 
What  is  the  use  of  these  coverings  and  the  fluids  which  they  contain  ? 

To  receive  and  properly  refract  the  rays  of  light.    All  parts 
of  the  eye  are  constructed  in  such  strict  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  light,  that  it  excels  all  other  optical  instruments  in  its 
perfection  and  accuracy. 
What  does  the  picture  upon  the  preceding  page  represent  ? 

It  represents  the  eye.  Above  it  is  placed  what  is  called 
the  lachrymal  gland  (fig.  1),  which  continually  pours  out  a 
watery  fluid  or  tears,  to  moisten  the  ball  of  the  eye,  and  keep 
it  free  from  impurities.  This  fluid  then  passes  off  through 
the  nasal  duct  or  canal  (fig.  2)  into  the  nose,  and  thence  it  is 
ejected  in  the  form  of  vapor  with  the  breath. 
What  is  the  cause  of  tears  sometimes  running  down  the  cheeks  ? 

A  stoppage  in  the  nasal  duct ;  or  a  sudden  emotion  or  irri- 
tation will  at  times  cause  a  greater  flow  of  this  fluid  than  will 
readily  pass  off  through  its  natural  channel,  thus  occasioning 
an  overflow,  which  runs  down  the  cheeks  in  the  form  of  tears. 
7*  a  likeness  or  picture  of  everything,  while  it  is  being  looked  at,  represented 
on  the  inner  coat  or  pupil  of  the  eye  ? 

Yes.  A  proof  of  this  fact  may  be  observed  by  looking 
closely  into  another  person's  eye,  when  you  will  see  yourself 
pictured  in  it,  the  same  as  in  a  mirror  when  standing  before  it. 

What  instrument  resembles  the  eye  in  its 
operation,  and  how  is  it  constructed?  }  ^ 

The  telescope,  which  is  designed  ij 
to  aid  the  eye  in  distinctly  seeing  | 
objects  at  a  distance.     It  is  a  long  || 
tube,  with  extension  joints,  to  in- 
crease  or  diminish  its  length,  and 
having  glasses  of  a  peculiar  form, 
placed  within  and  across  it  at  vari- 
able distances,  to  reflect  and  refract  the  rays  of  light  from  any 
distant  point,  so  that  the  object  will  be  pictured  on  the  eye. 
What  taught  man  to  make  such  an  instrument  ? 

The  form  and  peculiar  structure  of  the  eye. 
Whan  is  a  person  said  to  be  squint  or  cross  eyed? 

When  one  eye  is  directed  toward  one  object,  while  the 
f|  other  seems  to  be  looking  in  a  different  direction ;  the  muscles  ,J 
which  move  the  eye  are  unequally  contracted  or  weakened,  ' 
so  that  they  are  not  all  subject  to  the  will  of  the  mind.     A 
person  who  is  squint  or  cross  eyed  sees  an  object  with  but  one 
eye  at  the  same  time. 


THE    SENSE    OF    SIGHT. 


31 


How  may  this  unequal  contraction  or  weakness  be  remedied  ? 

Blindfolding  the  perfect  eye,  if  either  is  straight,  and 
allowing  the  person  to  look  only  through  the  imperfect  one, 
which  is  usually  weak,  will  often  strengthen  and  restore  it. 
It  may  also  be  remedied  by  cutting  the  muscle  that  prevents 
the  eye  from  moving  in  the  direction  of  the  will. 
When  the  form  of  the  eye  is  too  round,  what  is  the  effect  ? 

The  person  is  near-sighted,  and  can  not  distinguish  distant 
objects  clearly. 

What  is  a  frequent  cause  of  near-sightedness,  and  how  may  it  be  remedied  ? 
The  habit  of  looking  at  objects  placed  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  eyes,  which  may  be  overcome  by  an  opposite  practice, 
but  the  wearing  of  concave  glasses  is  the  usual  remedy. 
Does  the  eye  flatten  as  we  grow  older  ? 

Yes ;  and  people  near-sighted  when  young,  can  often  see 
objects  at  a  great  distance  when  they  are  advanced  in  years. 

Why  do  aged  people  hold  a  book  at  a 
distance  from  their  eyes  when  they  read 
without  spectacles  ? 

Because,  as  the  eye  grows  flat- 
ter as  it  grows  older,  it  can  not 
distinctly  see  objects  that  are  very 
near.  This  is  called  long-sighted- 
ness, and  may  be  remedied  by  the 
use  of  convex  glasses. 
What  class  of  men  train  their  eyes  to  see  at  a  great  distance  f 

Seamen,  by  constantly  looking  at  far-distant  objects. 
Wlutt  will  be  the  effect  of  fixing  the  eye  for  a  time  upon  some  distant  object  ? 
There  will  be  a  painful  sensation  in  the  eye  similar  to  that 
experienced  by  other  muscles  of  the  body  when  used  too  long; 
this  is  called  "  straining  the  eyes." 

Do  all  animals  and  insects  have  eyes  f 
All  animals  have  eyes,  but  a  few 
insects  have  none,  while  others  have  a 
great  number.     The  ant  has  fifty,  the 
beetle  has   three  thousand,  the   silk- 
worm-moth six  thousand,  the  dragon- 
fly twelve  thousand,    and  the  micro- 
scope shows  that  others  have  as  many 
as  twenty  thousand  eyes  or  more. 
What  does  the  picture  represent  ? 

It  represents  a  front  view  of  the  head  of  a  bee,  highly 
magnified,  showing  the  great  number  of  eyes  it  has.  Each 
hexagon  in  the  picture  represents  an  eye. 


\ 


32  THE    SENSE    OP    SIGHT. 

What  is  the  probable  reason  of  their  having  so  many  eyes  ? 

It  may  be  because  they  have  no  muscles  with  which  to  move 
the  eye,  and  thus  they  need  a  great  number  of  extremely 
small  ones  to  enable  them  to  see  in  every  direction  at  the 
same  moment.  All  these  eyes  may,  moreover,  be  necessary 
to  help  them  find  food,  and  to  warn  them  of  danger. 
Why  have  we  but  two  eyes  ? 

Our  eyes  being  moveable,  we  are  enabled  to  look  in  many 
directions  ;  therefore,  a  larger  number  is  not  necessary. 
What  is  the  use  of  eyebrows  ? 

They  are  designed  to  turn  away  the  sweat  of  the  forehead, 
and,  aided  by  the  eyelashes,  prevent  its  getting  into  the  eyes. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  eyelids  f 

They  keep  the  eyes  moistened,  and  wash  off,  every  time 
the  eyelids  wink,  all  the  dust  which  may  settle  on  the  eyes. 
Besides  they  protect  the  eye  from  an  exposure  to  dust,  wind, 
or  a  too  strong  and  sudden  light,  which  not  unfrequently  is 
the  cause  of  inflammation  of  the  eyes.  The  eye  is  the  most 
delicate  of  the  organs  of  sense,  and  is  more  liable  to  injury 
and  disease  than  any  of  the  other  senses. 
How  may  we  prevent  disease  and  strengthen  the  eyes  ? 

Diseases  of  the  eye  may  be  prevented  by  a  careful  regard 
to  their  strength,  by  refraining  from  their  use  in  improper 
light,  and  by  affording  them  rest  as  soon  as  a  sense  of  fatigue 
begins  to  be  experienced.  Washing  them  in  pure,  cold  water 
at  bed-time,  and  a  liberal  bathing  on  rising  in  the  morning, 
will  be  found  of  great  service  in  promoting  strength  and  vigor. 
What  should  be  done  when  particles  of  dust  get  in  the  eyes  ? 

The  dust  should  be  removed  at  once  by  the  mildest  means, 
to  avoid  inflaming  the  eyes.     Eye-stones  should  never  be 
employed,  as  they  often  cause  more  pain  and  irritation  than 
the  evil  they  were  intended  to  remedy. 
Are  there  any  persons  who  can  not  distinguish  one  color  from  another  ? 

Yes ;  some  persons  can  not  separate  any  of  the  colors, 
while  others  are  unable  to  distinguish  some  one  or  more,  like 
jgreen  from  blue,  but  can  readily  discern  the  rest. 
Which  of  the  Jive  senses  are  most  important  in  relation  to  the  mind  ? 

Seeing  and  hearing  are  obviously  the  most  precious,  as 
means  of  acquiring  knowledge,  and  promoting  mental  im- 
provement.    The  enjoyments  furnished  by  the  senses  of  see-  |J 
ing  and  hearing,  take  a  far  wider  range,  and  are  of  a  far 
nobler  nature,  than  those  of  the  other  senses,  which  seem  to 
be  more  directly  useful  to  the  body  than  to  the  mind.     The  ^ 
interesting  yet  almost  senseless  little  creature,  Laura  Bridge-  |  jj 


man,  an  inmate  of  the  Boston  Institution  for  the  Education 
of  the  Blind,  from  her  birth  has  been  able  neither  to  see, 
hear,  speak,  nor  smell,  but  makes  her  wants  known  and  holds 
converse  with  her  teachers,  through  the  sense  of  feeling  only, 
and  is  happy  and  thankful  for  this  one  ! 

How  wise,  good,  and  ALL-SEEING,  must  be  the  Creator, 
who  made  the  eye,  so  perfect,  so  beautiful,  and  so  wonderful ! 
And  we  should  never  abuse  this  nicely-made  and  delicate 
instrument  by  straining  it,  in  looking  too  long  at  one  object, 
or  by  using  it  when  there  is  not  sufficient  light  to  see  properly. 

Neither  should  we  neglect  a  proper  care  of  all  the  senses 
with  which  we  are  endowed ;  for  a  deprivation  of  any  of  them 
is  one  of  the  greatest  misfortunes  that  can  befall  us. 


LESSON  THIRTEENTH. 

The  Heart,  or  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood. 

7s  t he  blood  always  rapidly  circulating  through  the  body  ? 
It  is.     The  instant  the  blood  stops  moving  we  faint  away. 

What  makes  the  blood  keep  constantly  cir- 
culating through  the  body  ? 

The  action  of  the  heart  is  thought 
to  be  the  chief  if  not  the  only  cause. 
Can  you  feel  this  action  of  the  heart  ? 

Yes  ;  by  putting  the  hand  on  the 
left  breast,  and  by  the  beating  or 
throbs  of  what  is  called  the  pulse, 
in  the  wrist.  \ 

What  conveys  the  blood  out  Jnti^jtfte  heart 
through  the  system  ? 

The  arteries.  These  are  large 
and  small  pipes  running  into  and 
through  every  part  of  the  body,  as 
represented  in  the  picture. 

What  brings  lack  the  Hood  again  into  the 
heart  ? 

The  veins,  which  may  be  seen 
through  the  skin  on  the  body. 

What  is  the  color  of  the  blood  when  it 
comes  back  through  the  veins  ? 

Black  and  thick,  from  collecting 
and  bringing  with  it  in  its  course 
back  to  the  heart  all  the  impurities 
of  the  blood. 


THE    CIRCULATION    OF    THE    BLOOD. 


Why  does  the  blood  return  to  the  heart  ? 

To  be  sent  by  it  into  the  lungs,  to  \>e  purified. 
How  often  does  all  the  blood  make  a  circuit  through  the  system  ? 

This  depends  wholly  upon  the  health  or  condition  of  the 
person.  Once  in  from  three  to  eight  minutes,  all,  or  at  least 
an  amount  equal  in  weight  to  all,  the  blood  in  a  human  body 
flows  from  the  heart  through  the  arteries  to  the  extremities  of 
the  system,  and  then  back  again  through  the  veins  into  the 
heart  and  lungs,  to  be  purified. 
How  much  blood  is  there  in  an  adult  orfull-groum  person  1 

From  thirty  to  forty  pounds,  or  from  four  to  five  gallons. 
How  many  pounds  of  blood  pass  through  the  heart  every  twenty-four  hours  ? 
About  sixteen  thousand  pounds,  or  eight  tons,  which  is 
more  than  the  weight  of  a  hundred  men,  and  more  than  sev- 
enty barrels  in  measure  ! 
What  is  meant  by  the  beating  or  throbbing  of  the  heart  ? 

What  we  call  the  "  beating  of  the  heart"  is  its  action  to 
throw  out  the  blood  into  the  system.     Each  beat  or  throb  ex- 
pels from  the  heart  in  this  way  about  two  ounces  of  blood. 
What  may  be  said  of  the  rapid  circulation  of  the  blood  ? 
The  faster  it  circulates,  beyond  what  is  natural  in  health, 
the  sooner  it  will  wear  out  the  body. 
What  injurious  effect  results  from  drinking  spirituous  liquors  ? 

It  excites  and  increases  the  action  of  the  heart. 
Does  it  not  follow  then,  that  the  habitual  use  of  wine,  spirits,  or  even  of  beer 
and  cider,  will  shorten  life  ? 

It  certainly  does.     Drinking  alcoholic  liquors  throws  the 
whole  system  into  an  excited  and  destructive  action. 
With  a  temperate  and  healthy  man,  how  often  does  the  heart  beat  ? 

Some  seventy  times  in  a  minute,  or  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  times  in  twenty -four  hours  ! 
Does  exercise  promote  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ? 

It  does  ;  and  a  regular  exercise  of  the  muscular  system  is 
necessary,  to  keep  up  a  vigorous  circulation  of  the  blood  to  ,, 
the  extremities  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  also  to  maintain  a  'JC 
healthy  condition  of  the  system.  'jij| 

Should  all  kinds  of  clothing  be  loosely  worn  ?  <| 

Yes ;  all  articles  of  apparel  should  be  worn  loosely,  so  as  L 
to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  blood  through  every  organ,  to 
the  very  extremities  of  the  body. 

What  is  the  best  stimulant  when  the  extremities  are  cold  and  chilly  ? 
Exercise  in  the  open  air,  or  an  application  of  cold  water 

j    followed  by  a  brisk  rubbing  with  a  coarse  towel. 
IB  t_! 


BREATHING,  OR  THE  HEART  AND  LUNGS.       35 


LESSON  FOURTEENTH. 
Breathing,  or  the  Heart  and  Lungs. 


The  Heart,  Lungs,  and  Windpipe,  in  their  natural  Position. 
Where  are  the  heart  and  lungs  located  ? 

They  are  placed  within  the  chest,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
trunk,  where  they  are  protected  by  the  ribs  or  "  bones  of  the 
chest,"  (see  page  12.)  These  organs  are  exceedingly  deli- 
cate in  their  structure,  and  will  not  bear  with  impunity  any 
exposure  to  external  injury. 
Of  what  advantage  is  breathing,  and  why  does  it  keep  us  alive  ? 

By  breathing  we  draw  in  air,  which  purifies  the  blood,  and 
prepares  it  for  nourishing  and  sustaining  the  body,  and  the 
refuse  matter  which  it  separates  from  the  blood  is  carried  out. 
Into  what  organ  does  the  air  enter  when  we  inhale  or  breath  it  ? 

Into  the  lungs  where  its  gases  come  in  contact  with  the 
blood,  impure  from  having  circulated  through  the  body.     The 
gases  of  the  air  purify  this  blood,  which  immediately  after 
passes  again  through  the  body  to  return  in  like  manner. 
What  conducts  the  blood  into  the  lungs  ? 

Small  vessels  or  tubes  are  continually  pouring  impure  blood 
into  the  lungs  from  the  heart,  while  others  are  carrying  it  back 
again  into  the  heart  after  it  is  purified. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  impurity  of  the  blood  ? 
As  the  blood  passes  through  the   body,  it  gathers  up  the 
decayed  and  waste  particles  or  atoms,  and  in  this  way  it  be- 
comes impure.     It  then  returns  to  the  lungs  to  be  purified,  jfj 


f" 
.   36       BREATHING,  OR  THE  HEART  AND  LUNGS. 

and   thus  made  fit  again  to  go  out  into  the  system,  to  perform 
its  life-preserving  work  anew. 
What  are  the  lungs  that  purify  the  blood  by  means  of  the  air  ? 

They  are  the  bellows,  or  breathing  organs  of  the  body, 
and  are  composed  of  a  soft,  fleshy  substance,  full  of  small 
air-cells  and  tubes,  similar  to  a  sponge  or  a  honey-comb. 
How  many  lungs  have  we,  and  how  are  they  situated  f 

We  have  two  lungs ;  one  lying  on  the  right  side  of  the 
heart,  called  the  "  right  lung,"  the  other  upon  the  left  side, 
called  "  the  left  lung." 
What  is  breathing,  and  how  may  the  process  of  breathing  be  explained? 

It  is,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  drawing  of  air  into  the 
lungs,  and  pressing  it  out  again  in  continued  changes.  The 
air  is  drawn  in  through  the  windpipe,  and  along  the  tubes 
into  the  cells  of  the  lungs,  swelling  them  out,  and  causing  the 
chest  to  expand  ;  and  then,  as  it  sinks  or  contracts,  the  air,  or 
a  watery  vapor  containing  the  impurities  of  the  blood,  is  press- 
ed out  again  through  the  same  passage,  into  the  atmosphere. 
By  what  process  does  the  air  purify  the  blood  ? 

The  air  consists  mainly  of  two  gases ;  the  principal  one  is 
called  oxygen,  and  the  other  nitrogen.  The  oxygen  gas  com- 
bines with  the  waste  substances  or  particles  in  the  blood  called 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  producing  what  is  termed  carbonic  acid 
gas,  which  is  expelled  or  breathed  out  from  the  lungs  when  the 
chest  contracts.  The  oxygen  by  this  process  changes  the 
"  venous"  or  impure  blood  from  a  dark  color  to  one  of  bright 
scarlet  or  "  arterial  blood."* 
Is  the  carbonic  gas  thus  ejected  from  the  lungs,  Jit  to  be  breathed  again  ? 

By  no  means ;  it  is  very  poisonous,  and  if  much  of  it  is 
inhaled  again,  it  causes  sickness  and  destroys  life. 

Why  should  school-rooms,  churches,  and  all  public  buildings,  have  a  free 
circulation  of  fresh  air  into  and  out  of  them  ? 

The  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  room  is  soon  consumed  by 
the  breathing  of  the  scholars,  or  large  assemblage  of  persons, 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  is  left  in  its  place.  Air,  therefore,  should 


*  The  nature  of  the  different  gases  may  properly  be  explained  here. 

Carbon  is  an  elementary  combustible  substance.     But  for  the  exist- 
[[  ence  of  this  substance  in  wood  aud  coal  they  would  not  burn. 

Hydrogen  is  a  gas  which  constitutes  one  of  the  elements  of  water  and 
jji  is  highly  inflamable  or  easily  set  on  fire. 

jl       Oxygen  is  the  principal  component  part  of  water,  the  vital  part  of  the 
|f  air  in  sustaining  animal  life,  and  the  supporter  of  ordinary  combustion. 
l|      Nitrogen  is  the  principal  component  part  of  the  air  that  we  breathe,  If 
|  yet  animals  can  not  live  in  it  alone,  while  it  is  the  living  principle  of  the  jl  r 

Iff  vegetable  kingdom. 

_  ^ ^_  ^         yaiE 


BREATHING,  OR  THE  HEART  AND  LUNGS.       37 


pass  in  and  out  freely,  both  to  supply  more   oxygen,  and  to 
drive  off  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas. 
Is  not  this  just  as  true  of  private  dwellings  and  work-shops  ? 

Yes  ;  all  rooms  in  which  people  sit,  or  pursue  their  labors 
by  day,  as  well  as  those  in  which  they  sleep  at  night,  should 
be  kept  well  ventilated,  so  that  the  air  they  have  already 
breathed  may  pass  out,  and  pure  fresh  air  be  freely  admitted. 
7s  it  not  also  true  that  light  is  next  in  importance  to  air  f 

Yes ;  light  should  be  perfect  and  abundant,  as  it  is  impor- 
tant to  the  health  and  good  color  of  both  plants  and  animals. 
Children  or  adults,  like  plants,  if  confined  too  much  in  dark 
and  badly-ventilated  rooms,  will  be  pale  and  sickly. 
Should  sick-rooms  be  well  ventilated  for  the  benefit  of  the  patient  ? 

It  is  a  too  common  practice  to  exclude  fresh  air  from  a  sick- 
room, from  a  fear  that  the  patient  will  take  cold.     In  fevers 
or  inflammatory  diseases  let  the  patient  breathe  freely  of  pure 
air  (avoiding  draughts  or  currents  of  air),  for  the  purer  the 
blood  the  greater  will  be  the  power  of  the  system  to  overcome 
the  disease,  and  the  less  the  liability  of  taking  cold. 
What  are  lung  diseases,  and  how  are  the  lungs  affected  ? 
In  health  the  lungs  are  exceeding  porous  and  spongy,  but 
in  some  diseases  they  become  nearly  or  quite  one  solid  mass. 
In  consumption  the  tubes  and  cells  are  to  some  extent  closed 
with  tubercles  or  abscesses  of  putrid  or  corrupt  matter,  and 
sometimes  the  whole  substance  of  the  lungs  is  filled  in  this 
way,  leaving  but  little  or  no  room  for  the  air  to  be  breathed 
into  them.     Death  soon  ensues  in  such  cases  from  the  lack 
of  air  to  purify  the  blood  and  nourish  the  system. 
When  are  the  diseases  of  the  lungs  most  prevalent  ? 
Diseases  of  the  lungs  prevail  the  most  during  the  months 
when  and  in  localities  where  the  weather  is  most  changeable, 
but  diminish  as  the  temperature  becomes  more  uniform. 
How  may  the  diseases  of  the  lungs  be  guarded  against  ? 

To  prevent  diseases  of  the  lungs,  constant  care  should  be 
J|  exercised  to  keep  the  heat  of  the  body  as  uniform  as  possible, 
!l  and  to  avoid  sudden  exposure  to  cold  air,  when  the  system  is 
unnaturally  excited,  and  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  relaxed  and 
open,  or  in  other  words,  when  we  feel  "  warm  and  sweaty." 
The  clothing  during  winter  should  be  sufficient  to  protect  the 
body,  against  sudden  changes  of  the  atmosphere,  and  it  should 
not  be  exchanged  too  early  for  summer  apparel.  It  is  better 
i  to  suffer  a  little  inconvenience  in  the  spring  from  excessive 
clothing,  than  to  risk  injury  to  the  lungs  by  making  the  change 
prematurely. 


fl  38  THE   HEAT    OF   ANIMAL    BODIES. 

1 

<  LESSON  FIFTEENTH. 

jj  Animal  Heat,  or  "Warmth  of  the  Body. 


Food  supplies  fuel  for  the  heat  of  animal  bodies — Coal  the  fuel  for  heat  in  Furnaces. 

Is  the  true  cause  of  heat  in  animal  bodies  generally  understood  ? 

It  is  not.  The  true  source  of  animal  heat  is  still  but  im- 
perfectly known.  There  have  been  many  conjectures  and 
conclusions  put  forth,  but  we  have  no  means  of  determining 
the  truth  of  any  of  them.  The  action  of  the  air  upon  the 
blood  in  breathing,  the  circulation  of  the  fluids  of  the  body, 
but  more  especially  the  blood  and  the  action  of  the  nervous 
system,  may  all  tend  to  produce  heat. 
In  what  way  may  these  be  supposed  to  cause  the  heat  of  the  body  ? 

The  part  of  the  air  called  oxygen  uniting  or  mingling  with 
the  carbon  of  the  blood  may  produce  heat,  the  same  as  heat 
is  produced  by  mingling  water  with  unslaked  lime.  Again, 
the  rapid  circulation  of  the  blood  and  other  fluids  through  the 
system,  may  cause  the  heat  from  friction,  the  same  as  when 
two  pieces  of  wood  are  rubbed  together  they  soon  become 
warm.  These  are  but  conjectures  for  which  we  have  no  pos- 
itive foundation. 
What  is  the  latest  conclusion  of  physiologists  upon  this  subject  ? 

Physiologists  of  the  present  day  very  generally  agree  that 
the  heat  of  the  body  is  caused  by  the  slow  combustion  or 
decomposition  of  the  old  and  waste  particles  of  flesh  and 
other  component  parts  of  the  system,  which  it  is  evident  is 
constantly  going  on  through  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
How  may  this  conclusion  be  satisfactorily  explained? 

We  have  before  stated  that  during  life  the  body  is  con- 
tinually decaying,  and  a  new  body  is  being  formed  to  take  its 
I)  place.     The  food  that  we  eat  adds  new  material  to  the  blood. 
This  new  material  is  earned  with  the  blood  in  its  circuit 
|  through   the  system  and   is  deposited  wherever  it  may  be 
needed.     The  waste  or  dead  particles,  or  those  which  have 
finished  their  work,  are  received  into  the  blood,  and  their  pla- 


THE    HEAT    OF    ANIMAL    BODIES.  39 

ces  occupied  with  new  ones  fresh  with  living  vigor.  These 
rejected  particles  or  atoms  contain  more  or  less  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  which,  coming  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  in  the 
air,  received  into  the  blood  through  the  process  of  breathing, 
are  thereby  consumed,  producing  and  generating  a  general 
heat  throughout  the  system.  This  work  of  interchange  of 
particles,  and  the  burning  up  of  the  old  flesh,  is  carried  on 
throughout  the  body;  consequently  every  part  of  it  is  warmed. 

Do  all    the  waste  particles,  or  rejected  matters,  pass  into  the  blood  to  be 
sent  out  of  the  system  through  the  lungs  ? 

No,  much  of  the  waste  of  the  body  escapes  through  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  in  the  form  of  a  watery  vapor,  or  as  it  is 
called  u  insensible  perspiration." 

2s  the  natural  heat  of  animal  bodies  the  same  in  all  temperatures  ? 

Yes,  whether  in  the  icy  regions  of  the  polar  circles,  or  in 
the  burning  zones  of  the  tropics,  the  internal  warmth  of  the 
body,  when  in  health,  remains  always  the  same. 

What  is  the  natural  heat  of  the  human  body  ? 

The'  usual  standard  of  heat  in  man  is  ninety-eight  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 

How  warm  should  a  room  be  in  winter  to  make  it  comfortable  to  live  in  ? 
From  sixty -five  to  seventy  degrees. 

How  warm  is  it  in  the  shade  in  a  very  hot  day  in  summer  ? 

Seldom  more  than  from  ninety  to  ninety-five  degrees.   There- 
fore it  is  very  evident  that  the  heat  of  the  body  is  warmer 
than  the  atmosphere  of  a  hot  day  or  of  a  heated  room.     It  is 
also  evident  that  the  heat  of  the  body  is  not  derived  from  ex- 
ternal objects,  and  certainly  not  from  the  atmosphere,  for  we  < 
know  that  our  bodies  are  warm  when  the  air  is  extremely  - 
cold ;  nor  from  the  sun  or  fire,  for  our  bodies  are  warm  in  the 
absence  of  both. 

May  we  then  conclude  that  there  is  no  additional  heat  imparted  to  the  body 
from  our  clothing,  let  it  be  what  it  may,  whether  cotton,  woolen,  or  furs  ? 

Yes  ;  for  our  clothing  has  no  actual  power  of  giving  heat,  , 
it  has  no  warmth  in  itself;  it   keeps  a  warm  body  warm,  and 
a  cool  body  cool,  but  of  itself  it  neither  creates  nor  gives  heat. 
If  in  summer  you  wrap  a  piece  of  ice  in  flannel  it  keeps  it ' 
from  melting.     Clothing  only  prevents  the  passage  of  heat 
from  within  or  the  cold  from  without.     If  then  animal  heat  is  . 
not  obtained  from  any  outward  source  it  must  originate  within 
the  body. 
How  is  the  heat  of  the  body  controlled  and  kept  at  its  regular  temperature  ? 

The  surplus  heat  of  the  body  passes  off  through  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  and  by  evaporation  from  the  lungs.  The  quan-  ' 


40  THE    HEAT    OF   ANIMAL    BODIES. 


tity  which  thus  escapes  is  regulated  by  the  temperature  of 
the  air  and   the  state  of  the  atmosphere.     In  warm  and  dry 
weather  a  greater  amount  of  heat  passes  off  than  in  damp 
and  warm  or  cold  and  frosty  weather. 
Is  the  internal  heat  of  the  body  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer  ? 

Yes.    By  a  wise  adaptation  of  Nature's  supply  to  her  wants, 
the  animal  body  is  kept  cool  in  the  summer  and  warm  in  the 
winter.     In  the  winter  we  have  a  greater  appetite  and  desire 
for  animal  food,  which  supplies  more  carbon  and  hydrogen  or 
combustible  material,  and  the  increased  density  of  the  air  fur- 
nishes more  oxygen ;  consequently  a  greater  heat  is  maintain- 
ed ;  but  in  warm  weather  a  vegetable  diet,  which  gives  less 
fuel,  satisfies  our  desires  and  appetites,  and  the  atmosphere 
affords  less  oxygen  for  the  support  of  the  combustion. 
Upon  what  does  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed  and  heat  generated  depend  ? 
They  depend  mostly  upon  the  quality  of  the  air  breathed 
into  the  lungs,  the  healthy  or  diseased  condition  of  the  lungs, 
the  age  of  the  individual,  exercise  of  the  body,  the  condition 
of  the  brain,  the  skin,  and  the  general  system. 
Does  exercise  increase  the  heat  of  the  body  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  ? 

It  certainly  does.     We  know,  from  experience,  that  our  bod- 
ies  are  warmer  during  exercise,  and  our  desire    and  appetite 
for  food  greater,  than  when  we  are  at  ease  or  unemployed. 
7s  the  heat  of  the  body  the  same  during  sleep  as  when  awake  ? 

No,  it  is  not.     During  sleep  when  the  brain  is  partially 
inactive,  less  heat  is  generated  ;  and  for  this  reason,  we  need 
more  covering  to  our  bodies  to  be  comfortable  than  we  require 
while  awake. 
Do  young  or  aged  persons  generate  the  most  heat  in  their  bodies  ? 

Young  persons.     It  may  be  because  the  circulation  of  the  |j> 
blood  and  other  fluids  are  more  rapid  in  young  persons  than  in  jj> 
aged  ones,  or  that  the  period  when  all  the  parts  of  the  system  i!j) 
|  are  growing  more  heat  may  be  required  in  order  to  make  the 
|  circulation  more  rapid,  for  it  is  through  the  circulation  of  the 
!  blood  that  the  material  is  carried  to  build  up  the  body,  the 
same  as  brick  and  mortar  are  carried  to  build  up  a  house. 
Why  does  a  person  become  almost  cold  before  death  ? 
Because  the  vital  organs,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the 
breathing,  and  the  nervous  system,  have  almost  ceased  to  per- 
form their  functions ;  or,  that  the  circulation,  breathing,  and 
action  of  the  nerves,  have  ceased,  because  the  vital  heat  is  no 
longer  supplied.     The  effect  of  this  suspension  of  vital  action 
is  first  felt  at  the  extremities,  the  coldness  gradually  progres- 
1|  sing  toward  the  region  of  the  heart. 


LESSON  SIXTEENTH. 

The  Stomach ;  or  Food  and  its  Digestion. 

From  ivhat  is  our  blood  made  ? 

It  is  made  from  the  food 
which  we  eat  and  drink. 
What  is  the  stomach  f 

It  is  a  large  pouch  or 
sack  into  which  the  food 
passes  after  leaving  the 
mouth,  and  where  it  is  di- 
gested. (See  the ,  picture 
of  the  stomach — fig.  1,  the 
passage  into  the  stomach  ; 
fig.  2,  the  point  at  which 
the  food  passes  out  after  it 
is  digested.) 

How  is   the  food   changed  or 
converted  into  blood  ? 

The  food  while  in  the 
The  Human  stomach.  stomach,  becomes  dissolved 

or  digested,  the  same  as  sugar  is  dissolved  in  tea  or  coffee. 
It  is  then  called  chyme  ;  this  passes  out  of  the  stomach  into 
what  is  termed  the  "  duodenum  or  intestines,"  where  it  is  then 
separated  into  two  classes,  a  milky  fluid  called  chyle,  or  £he 
part  which  enters  into  and  forms  the  life  of  the  blood,  and  the 
waste  or  useless  part,  which  should  be  ejected  from  the  body 
regularly  each  morning  soon  after  rising. 

What  turns  chyle  iniv  and  gives  it  the  color  of  blood  ? 

It  is  not  positively  known  ;  but  from  the  course  it  takes  it  is 
probable  that  it  is  converted  into  blood  when  it  mingles  with 
the  blood  already  formed  in  the  veins,  and  receives  .its  color 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

What  digests  or  dissolves  the  food  in  the  stomach  ? 

A  very  powerful  fluid  contained  in  the  coat  or  lining  of  the 
stomach,  called  gastric  Juice.  The  digestive  process  which 
effects  so  great  a  change  in  the  food  is  as  wonderful  as  it  is 
interesting.  Every  kind  of  food,  no  matter  what  its  character 
may  be,  whether  vegetable  or  animal,  is  dissolved  into  one 
and  the  same  fluid.  It  was  at  first  the  food  of  the  stomach  ; 
it  is  now  the  nutriment  or  vital  part  of  the  blood. 

What  prevents  the  food  from  escaping  from  the  stomach  while  in  a  state 
of  digestion  ?  ' 

At  the  point  or  outward  passage  of  the  stomach  there  is  a 


FOOD    AND    ITS    DIGESTION. 


strong  band  of  muscular  fibers 
which,  by  contraction,  completely 
closes  the  opening,  the  same  as  a 
string  tied  around  the  mouth  of 
a  bag,  and  thus  retains  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach,  while  under- 
going the  process  of  digestion. 
If  the  contents  were  not  thus  se- 
cured, the  motions  of  the  stomach 
and  the  respiratory  muscles  would 
force  the  food  out  prematurely. 

Wltfit  other  duty  is  performed  by  this 
contracting  band  of  muscular  fibers  ? 

This  ever-watchful  door-keeper 
not  only  retains  the  food  in  the 
stomach  until  it  is  properly  digest- 
ed, but  also  prevents  the  indigesti- 
ble matter,  or  that  which  will  not 
readily  digest,  from  passing  out, 
so  long  as  it  can  be  retained,  or 
until  it  is  compelled  to  let  it  pass. 
Of  what  does  this  indigestible  matter 
consist  ? 

We  sometimes  eat  food  of  a 
kind  which  the  stomach   can  not 
digest,  and  sometimes  we  eat  more 
at  a  meal  than  the  gastric  juice 
can  dissolve ;  or  that  which  has 
(       Fif:  4.  Th«  Rectum,  or  passage  for  been  eaten  may  not  have  been 
the  waste  matter  out  of  the  body.       properly  masticated  in  the  mouth. 
In  these  instances  the  stomach  digests  what  it  can,  and  makes 
a  great  effort  to  digest  the  rest,  or  to  send  it  out  undigested, 
which  it  finally  accomplishes      It  is  while  these  struggles  are 
going  on  that  we  feel  a  distressing  oppression  about  the  right 
side  just  below  the  short  ribs. 
What  is  tlie  cause  of  "a  distress  in  the  stomach,"  as  it  is  called? 

It  is  the  retention  of  the  indigestible  matter,  and  the  effort 
of  the  stomach  to  dissolve  it,  that  causes  the  headache  and 
the  distressing  oppression  experienced  in  the  region  of  the 
stomach  some  two  or  three  hours  after  meals,  and  to  relieve 
which  the  doctor  is  often  applied  to,  or  in  hig  stead  nostrums 
and  "  certain  cures"  of  various  kinds  are  swallowed. 
What  class  of  persons  digest  food  the  most  readily  ? 

Those  who  have  not  abused  their  digestive  organs  ; — who 
have  not  overloaded  them,  nor  tasked  them  with,  indigestible 

Ife 


Fl?.  1.  The  Stomach. 
Fii.  2.  Thn  Duodenum. 


FOOD    AND    ITS    DIGESTION. 


substances.  Those  who  exercise  freely  in  the  open  air ;  who 
sit,  sleep,  and  work,  in  well-ventilated  rooms ;  who  keep  a 
clean  skin ;  who  have  a  cheerful  and  contented  mind,  and 
who  lead  an  honest  and  indastrious  life. 

Do  not  some  articles  of  food  digest  more  readily  and  quicker  than  others  ? 
Yes.     But  there  is,  however,  a  considerable  difference  in 
this  respect.     It  is  too  commonly  supposed  that  the  food, 
which  people  in  ordinary  health  digest  soonest,  is,  for  that 
reason  only,  the  most  wholesome,  and  the  lightest,  as  it  is 
termed.     But  these  are  erroneous  conclusions. 
IjL     What  is  generally  considered  as  "  light"  or  "heavy"  food? 

The  terms  "light"   and  "heavy,"  as  applied  to  food,  are 
suggested  by  its  effects  on  the  feelings  of -those,  who  eat  it ; 
and,  in  this  sense,  they  are  sufficiently  accurate.    These  effects, 
|  however,  do  not  depend  merely  upon  their  readiness  or  diffi- 
culty of  digestion ;  but  partly,  if  not  wholly,  upon  the  influence 
of  the  food  on  the  circulation  of  the  fluids  of  the  body. 
Docs  animal  or  vegetable  food  digest  the  more  readily  ? 

Vegetable  food,  of  most  kinds,  digests  more  slowly  than 
animal  food  ;  but  for  persons  in  ordinary  health,  it  is  usually 
'([  deemed  lighter  than  meat :  that  is,  it  leaves  them  more  clear- 
headed  and  tranquil,  because  it  is  generally  much  less  stimu- 
lating  and  heating.     Besides,  all  the  digestive  organs  require 
some  degree  of  distension,  for  the  better  performance  of  their 
functions ;  and  food,  therefore,  should  not  consist  merely  of 
aliment,  or  be  capable  of  being  wholly  converted  into  chyle. 
What  rule,  tfan,  should  we  follow  in  deciding  what  food  is  best  for  us  1 

The  best  general  rule,  for  persons  in  ordinary  health,  is, 
probably,  to  observe  their  most  favorable  feelings  after  eating; 
for,  if  the^-  are  not  conclusive  evidence  of  quickness  of  diges- 
tion, they  are  still  good  evidence  ofthe  wholesomeness  of 
food.  The  kind  of  food,  however,  is  not  so  material  as  its 
condition  and  quality,  and  the  quantity  eaten  at  each  meal. 
Does  the  eating  of  food  hastily,  or  over-eating,  produce  any  ill  effect  ? 

Yes.  Our  food  should  be  eaten  quite  moderately,  and  be 
well  masticated  ki  the  mouth,  before  it  is  swallowed ;  other- 
wise an  oppressive  weight  and  oftentimes  pain  will  for  some 
time  afterward  be  felt  in  the  stomach.  The  same  feelings 
will  be  experienced  when  we  have  eaten  too  much,  or  have 
eaten  that  which  does  not  readily  digest,  which  must  in  a  great- 
er or  less  degree  injure  the  digestive  organs. 
Should  drinks  of  any  kind  be  taken  into  the  stomach  at  our  meals  ? 

No ;  for  they  retard  rather  than  assist  digestion.      The 
fluids  or  secretions  of  the  mouth  and  stomach  are  all-sufficient 


44  FOOD    AND    ITS    DIGESTION. 


for  the  purposes  designed,  and  these  are  weakened  and  less 
active  by  the  addition  of  other  fluids.     For  the  same  reason 
broths  and  soups  are  objectionable. 
7s  ice  or  very  cold  water  prejudiced  when  taken  tvith  our  meals  ? 

Yes  ;  for  digestion  is  suspended  until  the  heat  of  the  body  j) 
or  stomach  shall  have  equalized  the  temperature  of  the  ice  or 
cold  drinks  to  that  of  the  stomach. 

When  may  ice  or  very  cold  water  be  taken  with  impunity  ? 

In  cases  of  fever  or  inflammation  when  the  stomach  is  at  rest. 
Pulverized  ice  swallowed  into  the  stomach  at  stated  intervals 
is  highly  beneficial  in  a  feverish  or  inflamed  state  of  the  sys- 
tem, as  it  reduces  the  heat  of  the  blood ;  and  for  the  same  rea- 
son the  breathing  of  pure  fresh  air  is  also  beneficial.  In  such 
cases,  the  food  should  be  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  the  quan- 
tity limited.  Patients  are  greatly  relieved  and  soon  recover 
under  such  treatment,  where  an  opposite  course  has  sent  very 
^  many  to  an  early  grave. 

At  what  times  of  the  day  should  we  lake  our  morning  and  mid-day  meals  ? 

Breakfast  should  be  eaten  within  one  hour  after  rising  from 
our  beds.  This  applies  more  especially  to  invalids,  who  have 
but  little  strength  or  power  of  endurance.  "We  are  better  able 
to  resist  the  influences  of  cold,  and  to  keep  up  the  natural 
heat  of  the  body,  when  we  are  full  than  when  fasting.  In 
about  five  or  six  hours  after  the  morning  meal  the  appetite 
returns,  and  the  system  calls  for  more  nourishment ;  this  is 
then  the  true  guide  for  the  hour  of  dining. 
At  what  time  should  we  take  our  supper  or  evening  meal  ? 

Supper  should  be  eaten  at  least  three  hours  before  retiring 
to  rest,  that  this  meal  may  be  well  digested  before  sleep ; 
otherwise  the  sleep  will  be  disturbed  by  distressing  and  op- 
pressive dreams,  and  the  body  and  mind  will  not  be  refreshed 
by  sleep  for  the  following  day's  labor.  Our  meals  should  be 
eaten  at  the  same  hours  from  day  to  day. 
Should  anything  be  eaten  between  these  several  meals  ? 

No.  With  the  exception  of  a  little  water,  nothing  should 
go  down  our  throats  between  meals,  and  not  even  water  until 
two  hours  shall  have  elapsed  from  the  time  of  eating.  The 
reason  is  obvious.  The  stomach  requires  rest,  and  rest  it  must 
have  if  expected  to  perform  its  work  properly. 
f|JL  May  we  not  eat  an  apple,  or  a  little  fruit,  or  a  few  nuts,  between  meals  f 

The  answer  is    still,  No!     These  maybe  eaten  with  our 
meals,  but  not  between  them  as  a   general   rule.      Every  g 
housekeeper  knows  how  very  annoying  it  is,  when  she  has 
cleaned  up  after  a  regular  meal,  to  be  called  upon  to  go  through  fi ) 


FOOD    AND    ITS   DIGESTION. 


45 


a  similar  operation  between  meals.     The  stomach  is  as  sensi- 
tive of  annoyance  as  the  feelings  of  the  housekeeper. 

Are  not  children's  appetites  tampered  with  ? 

Yes,  to  an  alarming  extent.  Mothers  have  much  to  answer 
for  in  relation  to  this  question.  Children  are  trained  from 
their  infancy  to  be  gluttonous.  No  matter  if  they  have  filled 
their  little  stomachs  but  ten  minutes  before,  if  they  but  cry 
the  same  remedy  is  applied,  and  applied  as  often  as  the  cry  is 
repeated ;  sometimes  they  get  so  full  as  to  vomit — literally  to 
run  over.  By  this  early  habit  of  overfeeding,  the  stomach 
becomes  enlarged,  distended,  and  weakened ;  and  in  after-life 
if  dyspepsia  or  indigestion  does  not  prove  to  be  the  sad  result 
it  will  only  be  because  human  nature  is  tough  and  can  endure 
the  trespass  of  youthful  indiscretion. 

Does  cheerful  conversation  during  meals  assist  digestion  ? 

It  does.  During  the  time  of  eating,  the  body  should  be 
seated  in  a  comfortable  and  easy  position.  The  mind  should 
be  quite  free  from  care  and  anxiety.  None  of  the  evil  pas- 
sions should  ever  be  allowed  to  come  to  the  table,  but  in  their 
stead,  permit  the  lively  play  of  the  social  affections,  and  the 
pleasant  intercourse  of  family  and  friends,  to  keep  the  brain 
in  action  but  not  in  labor. 

Of  what  advantage  is  cheerful  conversation  during  meals  ? 

It  causes  the  blood  to  move  more  freely,  and  all  parts  of 
the  system  to  be  at  ease  and  free  from  restraint.  The  lively 
flow  of  spirits  will  aid  the  digestive  process,  which  will  the 
more  readily  begin,  and  be  the  more  easily  carried  on.  The 
solemn  stillness  that  reigns  over  the  tables  of  some  families, 
the  unbroken  quietness  which  a  stern  but  mistaken  disci- 
pline pursues  and  imposes  upon  some  children,  is  at  variance 
with  their  best  interests. 

Should  we  flee  to  a  doctor  or  to  drugs  and  medicine  for  every  ail,  ache,  and 
pain,  that  we  may  have  ? 

No ;  for  if  we  but  act  promptly  we  have  under  our  control 
a  preventive  and  a  cure  for  nearly  or  quite  every  ill  that 
"  flesh  is  heir  to,"  and  this  too  "  without  money  and  without 
price."  It  is  the  delay  to  act  which  gives  rise  to  the  neces- 
sity for  a  doctor.  Nearly  all  of  our  aches  and  ails  proceed 
from  the  foul  condition  of  the  stomach,  because  there  are  mat- 
ters there  which  do  not  readily  pass  off;  and  it  is  into  the 
stomach  that  medicines  are  sent  for  the  cure  of  these  troubles. 
Headaches  and  other  painful  sensations  in  the  head  proceed 
from  the  same  cause,  and  it  is  only  through  the  stomach  that 
the  relief  or  remedy  can  be  applied. 


46 


PHYSIOLOGY    OP    THE    TEETH. 


,J 


From  what  source  may  a  very  instructive  lesson  be  learned  ? 

"We  may  learn  a  very  instructive  lesson  from  the  cat,  dog, 
and  other  animals.  They  do  not  send  for  the  doctor  when 
they  are  ill;  but  follow  the  teachings  of  their  own  natural 
instinct.  Who  has  not  observed  that  when  ill  they  will  not 
eat,  but  fast,  sleep,,  and  soon  after  recover.  A  very  eminent 
physician  upon  his  death-bed  said,  "  I  shall  leave  behind  me 
three  greater  physicians  than  myself."  Upon  being  asked 
who  they  were,  replied,  "  Air,  Exercise,  and  Diet." 

LESSON  SEVENTEENTH. 

Physiology  of  the  Teeth. 


Are  the  teeth,  like  all  our  other  bones,  made  from  our  food  ? 

They  are ;  and  like  the  other  bones,  consist  chiefly  of  lime, 
but  unlike  our  other  bones,  are  exposed  to  the  immediate  ac- 
tion of  the  air  and  foreign  substances. 

In  what  respect  do  they  differ  from  the  other  bones  of  the  human  frame  ? 

They  are  composed  of  a  much  harder  material.  The  inter- 
nal part,  or  the  ivory  of  the  teeth,  is  a  more  solid  substance 
than  bone,  and  this  is  covered  with  a  smooth,  white,  and  still 
harder  substance,  called  enamel,  which  when  once  decayed  or 
destroyed  is  never  again  restored. 

What  is  the  use  of  this  enamel  ? 

It  gives  the  teeth  strength,  as  well  as  hardness,  for  biting, 
chewing,  and  grinding  the  food ;  it  also  prevents  injury  from 
these  operations,  and  from  the  action  of  acids  on  the  bone 
of  the  teeth ;  and  while  the  enamel  renders  these  important 
services,  it  adds  much  to  their  beauty  and  durability. 

Are  the  teeth  supplied,  like  the  other  bones,  with  blood-vessels  and  nerves  ? 

They  are,  and  as  most  people  have  occasion  to  know,  are 
endowed  with  life,  and  also  an  exquisite  sensibility,  which  is 
the  more  apparent  when  they  become  decayed. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    TEETH.  47 


How  many  parts  are  there  to    '•! 
a  tooth  f 

Three  parts :  called  the 
crown,  the  neck,  and  the 
root.     The  crown  is  that 
part   which  rises   out  of 
the  jaw,  and  which  is  seen, 
the  neck  is  that  portion 
clasped  by  the  upper  rim  jj 
of  the   socket ;  and  the   [ 
root  is  that  part  within 
the  gum  and  socket,  which 

Side  View  of  tho  Under  Jaw  and  Teeth.          .g  ^^  t()  ^  jawbone. 

C'j     How  many  teeth  has  a  young  child,  and  what  care  is  necessary  ? 

Twenty ;  ten  of  them  in  the  upper,  and  ten  in  the  lower 
|j  jaw.     When  a  child  becomes  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  the 
[[  teeth  loosen,  and,  if  they  do  not  drop  out,  they  should  be  re- 
|  moved  without  delay,  otherwise  they  will  prevent  the  proper 
formation  and  regularity  of  the  new  permanent  teeth,  which 
are  growing  under  them.     (See  the  picture,  letter  A,  showing 
the  position  of  the  new  teeth  in  the  under  or  moveable  jaw.) 
How  many  teeth  has  a  grown  person,  when  the  set  of  teeth  is  perfect  ? 
Thirty-two  ;  or  sixteen  in  each  under  and  upper  jaw. 
How  many  different  kinds  of  teeth  have  we  ? 

Three:  the  cutters,  or  front  teeth;  the  pointers,  or  eye- 
teeth  ;  and  the  grinders,  or  back,  double  teeth. 
How  many  are  there  'of  each  kind  ? 

In  each  jaw  there  are  four  front  teeth,  two  eye-teeth,'  and 
ten  grinders ;  one  half  of  them  on  each  side  of  the  face. 
What  is  the  most  important  use  of  tJie  teeth  ? 

Their  leading  and  most  important  use  is  to  cut  and  chew, 
or  grind  the  food  so  finely  that  it  may  be  mixed  with  the 
saliva,  or  the  moisture  of  the  mouth,  and  then  swallowed,  or 
passed  into  the  stomach.  This  is  the  first  step  in  preparing 
food  for  digestion  and  nourishment. 
If  we  had  no  teeth,  would  we  have  the  pleasure  in  eating  we  now  enjoy  ? 

We  would  not ;  for  the  only  food  which  we  could  then  take 
would  be  liquids,  or  pap,  such  as  young  children  feed  upon. 
Are  the  teeth  useful  in  any  other  way  ? 

Yes ;  they  assist  the  voice  in  talking,  reading  aloud,  and 
singing.  If  a  person  loses  two  or  three  front  teeth,  he  talks, 
reads,  and  sings,  in  a  hissing  manner,  which  is  called  lisping. 
The  loss  of  teeth  also  prevent  a  person  from  giving  the  cor- 
rect sounds  to  many  letters,  and  from  articulating  distinctly. 


48  PHYSIOLOGY    OP    THE    TEETH.  | 

Should  we  not  do  everything  in  our  power  to  preserve  our  teeth  f 

Yes ;  for  perfect  teeth   are  ornamental  as  well  as  useful,  n 
We  should  never  pick  nor  scratch  them  with  pins  or  pocket-  lf| 
knives ;  for  these  break  the  enamel  or  their  brilliant  pearly  cov-  I 
ering,  and  when  this  is  once  broken  they  soon  begin  to  decay.  M 
Quill  or  wooden  toothpicks  may  be  useful  in  removing  any    ! 
particles  of  food  that  may  not  be  readily  reached  by  the  brush, 
but  metallic  toothpicks  should  never  be  used. 
7s  there  any  other  way  in  which  the  teeth  may  be  injured  ? 

There  is ;  taking  into  the  mouth  food  or  drink,  which  is 
either  too  hot  or  too  cold,  and  the  habit  of  smoking  or  of  chew- 
ing tobacco,  which  burns  out  and  destroys  the  teeth.  The 
practice  of  cracking  nuts,  or  of  biting  thread,  or  of  lifting 
heavy  bodies  with  the  teeth,  are  very  injurious  to  them  ;  acid 
drinks  and  fruit  that  set  the  teeth  on  edge  are  also  injurious. 
Why  are  the  teeth  of  Europeans  generally  better  than  those  of  Americans  f 

The  principal  reason  is,  their  food  is  more  simple,  and  their  . } 
habits  more  temperate  and  uniform,  than  those  of  Americans. 
Can  we  preserve  our  teeth  many  years  unless  we  keep  them  always  clean  ? 

No.  The  teeth  should  be  cleansed  with  a  brush  or  soft 
piece  of  flannel  and  tepid  or  lukewarm  water,  after  every 
meal,  but  more  especially  before  retiring  to  rest,  and  again 
after  rising  in  the  morning.  Some  fine  tooth-powder  or  refined 
soap  may  be  occasionally  used,  to  remove  any  corroding  sub- 
stance that  may  exist  around  or  between  the  teeth,  care  being 
taken  to  thoroughly  rinse  the  mouth  after  its  use. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  pain  called  "toothache"? 

When  a  tooth  is  decayed,  and  its  nerve  is  diseased  and 
inflamed,  its  exposure  to  the  air  causes  the  ache  or  pain 
which  we  feel ;  and  when  eating,  some  of  the  food  is  pressed 
against  the  inflamed  nerve,  which  also  produces  the  painful 
sensation,  commonly  called  "  the  toothache." 
When  a  tooth  is  too  much  decayed  to  be  preserved  what  should  be  done  ? 

It  should  be  taken  out  without  any  delay ;  because  its  pres- 
ence not  only  contaminates  the  breath,  making  it  disagreeable, 
but  its  presence  is  an  injury  to  the  other  teeth,  by  causing 
them  also  to  decay.  This  applies  to  teeth  that  are  decayed 
beyond  a  remedy.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  teeth  extracted 
simply  because  they  ache,  for  the  nerve  of  the  root  may  be 
diseased  and  still  the  tooth  be  sound.  In  such  cases  the  dis- 
ease may  be  remedied  by  proper  medical  advice.  Many  a 
tooth,  through  ignorance,  has  been  removed  unnecessarily. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  premature  decay  of  the  teeth  ? 

Some  kinds  of  medicine  may  be  the  cause  of  more  or  less 


THE    HUMAN  THROAT   AND    VOICE.  49 

injury  to  the  teeth,  but  they  injure  the  stomach  first.  The 
great  leading  cause  of  the  premature  decay  of  the  teeth  arises 
from  their  disuse.  Some  persons  hardly  use  their  teeth  suffi- 
ciently to  keep  them  clean.  The  more  the  teeth  are  regularly 
and  properly  used  for  the  purposes  they  were  intended,  that 
of  masticating  and  preparing  the  food  for  the  stomach,  the 
more  healthy  they  will  be,  and  the  less  the  liability  to  decay. 
Who  have  sound  and  who  have  decayed  or  diseased  teeth  ? 

Healthy  persons  generally  have  sound  teeth,  while  feeble 
sickly  people  have  decayed  or  diseased  ones,  for  the  reason  - 
that  the  teeth  are  more  or  less  affected  by  the  healthy  or  dis- 
eased condition  of  the  stomach.     Therefore  all  should  try  to 
observe  the  few  simple  rules  that  are  laid  down  for  the  pro- 
motion of  health. 
If  a  person  wishes  to  have  a  sweet  breath,  of  what  must  he  be  careful  ? 

Of  his  teeth,  his  stomach,  and  his  lungs.  The  breaths  of 
some  persons  are  pleasant,  some  are  offensive,  while  others 
are  without  any  perceptible  odor ;  still  there  are  those  whose 
breaths  are  so  very  powerful  as  to  taint  the  air  of  a  whole 
room.  These  disagreeable  breaths  proceed  from  various  • 
causes ;  decayed  teeth,  disease  of  the  lungs  or  air  passages, 
but  more  commonly  from  the  direct  secretions  in  the  lungs, 
as  when,  for  instance,  onions  or  garlic  have  been  eaten,  tobac- 
co smoked  or  chewed,  or  when  any  kinds  of  spirituous  liquors 
have  been  taken  into  the  stomach. 


LESSON  EIGHTEENTH. 

The  Human  Throat,  or  the  Voice. 


What  class  of  persons  have  strong,  powerful,  and  melodious  voices  ? 
They  whose  lungs  are  healthy,  or  not  diseased,  who  have 
cultivated  a  full  chest,  and  an  erect  position  ;  who  give  their 
lungs  free  action  by  wearing  their  clothes  loosely  around  the 
chest  and  neck ;  and  they  who  daily  exercise  their  lungs. 
Sailors,  smiths,  and  others  engaged  in  noisy  occupations,  exert 
their  vocal  organs  more  strongly  and  therefore  their  voices 


THE    HUMAN    THROAT    AND    VOICE. 


are  with  less  effort  louder  and  clearer  than  those  engaged  in 
more  quiet  occupations. 

In  what  part  of  the  human  throat  is  the  voice  formed  9 
The  upper  part,  by  means  of  fourteen  pairs  of  muscles. 

How  many  clear,  distinct  tones  of  voice  can  a  person  make  ? 

At  least  fourteen  ;  and,  by  practice,  perhaps  several  more. 
The  human  throat  by  proper  cultivation  is  capable  of  being 
made  the  most  perfect  musical  instrument  yet  known  in 
nature  or  art.  f'v' 

Are  people  generally  good  performers  on  this  instrument  ? 

No ;  only  a  very  few  cultivate  the  voice  as  they  should ;  the 
greater  part  of  mankind  bestow  no  care  upon  it  whatever,  , 
and  employ  but  two  or  three  of  its  tones  during  their  lives. 

Is  not  a  variety  of  tones,  in  speaking  or  reading,  as  pleasing  to  the  ear  as 
a  variety  of  notes  in  singing  or  music  ? 

Yes ;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to  obtain  more  power 
over  the  voice,  not  only  by  singing,  but  by  the  daily  practice  , 
of  both  reading  and  speaking,  on  different  keys,  and  in  vari- 
ous tones. 
Should  not  singing  be  taught  as  a  regular  exercise  in  every  school  ? 

Yes.     In  the  schools  of  Germany  it  is,  and  more  recently 
in  some  of  the  schools  in  the  United  States  it  has  become,  a  , 
part  of  the  regular  established  course  of  instruction. 
What  favorable  effect  is  noticed  in  the  Germans  as  the  result  ? 

The  Germans  are  noted  for  being  a  healthy  and  cheerful  k 
nation.  Consumption  or  lung  diseases  are  seldom  known,  and  I 
it  is  believed  that  their  practice  of  singing,  united  with  their  j[g 
outdoor  exercises,  is  the  main  preventive.  And  this  is  prob- 
able, for  the  regular  exercise  of  the  lungs  and  the  vocal  or- 
gans, as  well  as  of  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  developes 
and  promotes  their  vigorous  and  healthy  action. 
Is  it  a  general  belief  that  singing  has  an  influence  on  the  moral  character  ? 

Yes,  and  a  very  favorable  one,  especially  when  pursued  at 
an  early  period  of  life.     This  conclusion  has  been  fully  and 
satisfactorily  sustained  by  experience. 
But  may  not  music  or  singing  sometimes  exert  a  corrupting  influence  ? 

Undoubtedly  it  may  especially  vocal  music.     But  any  of 
the  good  gifts  of  God  may  be,  and  are  sometimes,  perverted 
and  abused.     This,  however,  is  but  a  very  poor  reason  for  - 
omitting  to  use  them  at  all. 
What  are  the  German  proverbs  in  relation  to  singing  ? 

The  German  enthusiasm  for  singing  is  expressed  by  two 
proverbs,  which  read  thus :  "  Where  singing  is  not,  the  devil 
enters,"  and  "  Singing  is  the  gymnastics  of  the  affections."  \ ) 


THE    HUMAN   THROAT   AND    VOICE,  51 


I     How  may  voe  know  when  music  or  singing  is  rightly  employed  ? 

When  it  warms  the  domestic  and  social  sympathies;  but 
its  most  exalted  service  is  to  lift  the  heart  in  love,  gratitude, 
and  reverence,  to  HIM  "  from  whom  cometh  every  good  and 
perfect  gift." 
For  the  free  exercise  of  the  voice  should  anything  be  tight  <xro«nd  the  neck  f 

No.     The  dress  of  the  neck,  particularly  of  public  speakers 
and  singers,  should  be  quite  loose  and  thin  to  prevent  too 
|  great  a  flow  of  blood  to  the  vocal  organs  when  exercised. 
[     To  guard  against  sore  throats  and  coughs  what  great  error  is  committed  f 

The  practice  of  bundling  up  the  neck  to  guard  against  sore 
throats  and  coughs  is  very  erroneous,  for,  instead  of  warding 
these  off,  it  is  oftentimes  their  direct  cause.     It  is  the  extremi-  ' 
ties  of  the  body  that  need  extra  protection,  and  not  the  head 
nor  the  neck.     It  is  better  to  accustom  these  parts  of  the  body 
to  exposure,  and  when  coughs,  sore  throats,  or  a  cold  in  the 
head  occurs,  a  little  extra  covering  to  the  neck  and  throat  is 
all  that  will  be  required  for  their  remedy. 
By  what  other  practice  or  habit  are  the  affections  of  the  throat  caused  ? 

By  the  habit  which  some  persons  have  of  breathing  through  jj! 
their  mouth  instead  of  through  their  nostrils.    Children  should  J  J 
never  be  allowed  to  contract  this  habit,  neither  in  standing,  |(|J 
walking,  nor  sleeping ;  for,  besides  the  vacant  appearance  it 
gives  to  the  countenance,  it  .is  the  almost  certain  precursor  of 
coughs,  colds,  and  sore  throats.     The  nostrils  or  nasal  organs 
are  clearly  the  medium  through  which  respiration  was  design- 
ed by  our  Creator  to  be  carried  on.     "God  breathed  into 
man's  nostrils  the  breath  of  life,"  previous  to  his  becoming  a 
living  creature. 

What  is  the  real  origin  of  almost  all  the  diseases  of  the  throat,  lungs,  $*c.  ? 

Almost  all  the  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  such  as 
bronchitis,  asthma,  and  even  consumption  itself,  originate 
from  this  unnatural  habit  of  neglecting  to  keep  the  lips  closed 
when  not  engaged  in  conversation,  or  otherwise  occupied. 
The  excessive  perspiration,  or  "  night  sweats,"  to  which  some  | 
persons  are  so  liable  in  their  sleep,  and  which  is  so  weaken-  f 
ing  to  the  body,  is  solely  the  effect  of  such  persons  sleeping  || 
with  their  mouths  unclosed  ;  and  the  same  unpleasant  and 
exhaustive  effects  result  to  the  animal  system,  from  the  same 
cause,  when  exercising  by  walking  or  running. 

What  is  the  cause  of  stammering,  and  how  may  it  be  remedied  / 
J.        In  persons  who  have  "an  impediment  of  speech/'  it  is 
J    caused  by  an  attempt  on  their  part  to  speak  too  hastily,  or 
•while  in  a  state  of  nervous  excitement  or  agitation.     No  part 


52  THE    HAIR    AND    THE    NAILS. 

of  the  vocal   organs  are  wanting,  but  some  parts  are  imper- jk 
fectly  under  the  control  of  the  will.     In  the  young  and  mid-  ]u 
die-aged  this  defect  may  be  remedied  by  patient  and  judicious 
training.     By  at  first  repeating  only  the  words  that  can  be  | 
articulated   distinctly,   and  then   by  a  similar  repetition    of  | 
other  words,  until  all  the  words  in  common  use  may  be  spoken 
without  hesitation  or  intermission. 


LESSON  NINETEENTH. 

The  Hair  and  the  Nails. 

Why  are  our  heads  covered  with  hair  f 
To  serve  as  a  protection  from  the  sud- 
den changes  of  the  atmosphere ;  the  hair 
being  a  non-conductor  of  heat  or  cold. 
The  hair  also  serves  to  shield  the  brain 
from  injury  by  bumps  or  knocks. 
Has  each  hair  a  separate  root  or  bulb  ? 

It  has ;  and  this  root  or  bulb  extends 
below  the  real  skin,  and  is  fed  by  an  ar- 
tery which  supplies  it  with  the  material 
from  the  blood  for  the  growth  of  the  hair.  J 
7s  the  hair  supplied  with  nerves  and  blood-vessels  ? 

No.     The  hairs  are  simply  appendages  of  the  skin,  and  like  ™ 
the  outside  skin  or  "  cuticle"  of  the  body,  are  secreted  from  the 
real  or  true  skin.     They  have  no  blood-vessel  or  nerves,  and 
therefore  no  vitality  or  life  ;  if  they  had,  we  should  feel  pain 
when  they  are  cut  or  trimmed. 
What  is  supposed  to  give  the  various  colors  to  the  hair  ? 
The  color  of  the  hair  is  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  color 
of  the  fluid  in  the  pith  or  central  portion  of  the  hair,  running 
its  whole  length. 

What  peculiarity  is  visible  when  the  hair  is  seen  through  a  microscope  ? 
Each  hair  has  on  its  surface  pointed  barbs  or  a  beard  that 
point  towards  the  end.     By  sliding  a  single  hair  between  the 
fingers,  it  will  be  found  to   go  in  but  one  direction.     We 
[I  may  then  conclude,  that  the  object  of  this  beard  is  to  prevent 
j|  the  dust  that  may  accumulate  upon  the  hair  from  reaching 
ij  the  scalp  or  skin  of  the  head. 


What  gives  the  hair  its  beautiful  glossy  appearance  ? 

A  delicate  oil,  furnished  by  little  glands  in  the  true  skin. 
What  causes  the  hair  to  become  gray,  and  what  is  the  cause  of  baldness  ? 

The  fluid  or  coloring  matter  is  but  imperfectly  secreted  at 


THE    HAIR   AND    THE   NAILS.  53 

the  root,  and  the  pith  of  the  'hair  is  absorbed  or  dried  up  ;  it 
then  becomes  gray.     Baldness  is  occasioned  by  the  closing  of 
the  canals  which  convey  the  fluid  into  the  hair  for  its  suste-  ' 
nance  and  growth,  causing  it  to  die  and  drop  off.     The  skin 
then  closes  over  these  canals,  and  no  art  nor  application  of 
"  Infallible  Hair  Restoratives"  will  open  them  again. 
Are  people  generally  as  careful  of  their  hair  as  they  should  be  ? 

No,  they  are  not ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  neglect,  the 
scalp  sometimes  becomes  diseased  and  inflamed.     Cold  water 
is  the  very  best  application  in  such  cases,  and  upon  all  occa- 
sions where  inflammation  exists. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  dry  white  scurf,  or  dandruff,  upon  the  head  ? 

This  is  natural  and  can  not  be  prevented.     When  it  exists 
the  only  necessary  application  to  remove  it  is  the  frequent  use 
of  the  hair-brush,  and  an  occasional  washing  with  pure  water. 
Which  is  the  most  effectual,  brushing,  combing,  or  washing  the  hair  ? 

Brushing  is  more  effectual  than  combing,  but  combing  is 
better  than  washing;  yet  the  head  should  sometimes  be 
washed  thoroughly  with  cold  water — never  with  warm  water 
or  soap,  as  this  is  destructive  to  the  oil,  on  which  the  health 
and  beauty  of  the  hair  depend.  After  washing,  it  should  be 
well  dried  with  a  coarse  towel. 
Of  what  material  are  the  finger  and  toe  nails  composed  ? 

Chiefly  of  albumen  ;  a  word  signifying  a  white  substance, 
and  meaning  a  fine,  thin,  whitish  matter.     It  is  one  of  the 
substances  contained  in  the  chyle  and  blood. 
How  are  these  nails  produced,  and  of  what  advantage  are  they  ? 

They  are  secreted,  like  the  outer  skin,  by  the  true  skin. 
The  nails  are,  in  fact,  parts  of  the  outer  skin,  and  are  depos- 
ited from  beneath,  in  successive  layers,  or  thin  plates,  so  mod-: 
ified  as  to  harden  into  little  shields,  for  the  better  protection 
of  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  to  enable  them  to    { 
take  a  firmer  hold  of  whatever  they  may  be  required  to  do. 
In  what  respect  do  the  nails  differ  from  the  skin  to  which  they  are  appended? 
The  nails  are  a  hard,  elastic,  flexible,  and  partly  transpa- 
rent substance,  and  present  the  appearance  of  a  layer  of  horn. 
Of  what  use  are  the  finger  nails  ? 

They  give  defence  and  support  to  the  fleshy  ends  of  the 
I  fingers,  and  thus  enable  us  to  do  many  things  more  readily 
jl  and  correctly  than  we  could  do  without  them. 
j     Of  what  benefit  are  the  toe  nails  ? 

The  nails  of  the  toes  not  only  serve  as  a  protection,  but 
they  enable  us  to  take  a  firmer  footing,  and  to  step,  run,  leap, 


54  CLOTHING   AND    DRESS. 


and  balance  the  whole  frame,  with  more  vigor  and  precision 
than  v, "  otherwise  could. 
May  tha  usefulness  of  the  nails  be  secured  and  increased  by  care  ? 

Yes ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  should  be  kept  so  trimmed 
that  their  ends  will  completely  cover  and  protect  the  flesh  be- 
neath, when  anything  is  pressed  against  it  The  nails  should 
be  frequently  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  a  stiff  brush, 
but  should  never  be  scraped.  Clean  nails  are  an  evidence  of 
neatness  and  refinement  in  all,  especially  with  the  female  sex. 
What  causes  the  toe  nails  to  sometimes  "  grow  into  the  flesh"  ? 

Short  and  tight  boots  or  shoes.  The  forward  growth  of  the 
nails  being  interrupted,  they  spread  out  on  the  sides  and 
sometimes  becomes  unusually  thick.  The  only  sure  preven- 
tive is  to  wear  boots  or  shoes  of  ample  size,  which  not  only 
secures  freedom  to  the  growth  of  the  nails  and  the  circula- 
tion of  the  fluids  of  the  feet,  but  also  prevents  the  formation 
of  the  very  painful  excrescences  well  known  as  corns. 


LESSON  TWENTIETH, 

Clothing  and  Dress,  or  Protection  of  the  Body. 


Winter  Dress  of  an  Indian.  Winter  Drees  of  a  Highlander. 

To  what  extent  is  clothing  or  dress  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  body  ? 
We  are  so  much  the  creatures  of  habit,  and  have  been  so 
long  accustomed  through  many  years,  and  even  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  to  cover  the  body  with  clothing,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  how  great  a  degree  of  cold  the  body  could 
endure  in  the  absence  of  clothing.  Even  in  summer  we  should 
not  feel  as  comfortable  without  clothing  as  we  now  do  with  it. 

To  ivhat  extent  are  the  Indians  in  cold  climates  clothed  ? 

The  North  American  Indian  wears  much  less  clothing  than 
his  more  civilized  neighbors.  The  Indian  is  satisfied  and 
comfortable  with  his  blanket  for  his  back  and  shoulders,  his 
girdle  for  his  loins,  and  his  moccasins  for  his  feet,  while  his 
breast  ^nd  limbs  are  nearly  or  quite  bare. 


CLOTHING   AND    DRESS.  55 


To  what  extent  is  the  Highlander  of  Scotland  clothed  f 

In  the  costume  of  the  Highlander,  who  lives  in  the  north- 
ermost  parts  of  Scotland,  the  kilt  or  short  petticoat  scarcely 
reaching  his  stockings,  and  as  he  wears  no  pantaloons  his  flesh 
about  his  knees  is  bare  and  exposed  to  the  cold  of  his  very 
severe  climate,  and  yet  he  seems  to  be  as  comfortable  as  his 
southern  neighbors  whose  limbs  are  more  carefully  protected 
from  the  weather. 
Is  there  a  difference  in  the  habits  of  people  of  more  temperate  localities  ? 

Yes,  there  is  a  great  difference.  Some  persons  always  wear 
thick  clothing  from  the  first  approach  of  autumn,  until  the 
warmth  of  spring,  and  never  venture  abroad  without  an  over- 
coat or  an  extra  shawl,  while  others  dress  much  lighter,  and 
a  few  perhaps  find  no  days  in  winter  so  cold  as  to  require 
any  extra  covering.  It  would,  therefore,  appear  that  the 
amount  of  clothing  which  the  body  actually  requires  depends 
wholly  upon  the  health  and  habits  of  the  individual. 
What,  then,  next  to  keeping  a  clean  skin,  is  essential  to  health  and  comfort  ? 

Clean  and  proper  clothing,  neither  too  much  nor  too  little ; 
the  quantity  to  be  regulated  by  our  feelings  and  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere. 
In  what  manner  does  clothing  protect  the  body  from  cold? 

Not  by  imparting  any  warmth  of  its  own,  for  it  has  none 
to  impart ;  but  by  preventing  the  warmth  of  the  body  itself 
from  escaping,  and  the  cold  without,  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  body. 
Why  is  linen  clothing  found  to  be  cooler  than  woollen  ? 

Because  linen  cloth  having  a  closer  and  more  compact  tex- 
ture, holds  less  air  in  its  meshes,  and,  for  this  reason,  conducts 
heat  away  more  rapidly  than  woollen  cloth.  So,  cotton  cloth 
is  warmer  than  linen,  but  woollen  the  most  so  ;  and  woollen, 
again,  is  not  as  warm  as  fur,  nor  is  fur  as  warm  as  down.  In 
short,  the  closer  the  texture  the  better  the  conductor,  and  the 
more  open  the  texture  the  more  air  it  contains,  and  therefore 
the  warmer  the  clothing. 
Why  is  too  little  clothing  in  winter  objectionable  ? 

Because  it  exposes  the  body  to  all  the  sudden  changes  of 
the  weather.     Colds,  coughs,  consumption,  fever,  rheumatism, 
and  other  diseases,  are  often  the  result  of  scanty  clothing. 
May  too  much  clothing  be  injurious  as  well  as  too  little  ? 

Yes  ;  for  it  not  only  prevents  the  ready  escape  of  perspi- 
ration, but  tends  to  increase  it.  The  best  practical  rule  is, 
that  all  persons  wear  just  so  much  clothing,  of  proper  kind 


56 


CLOTHING   AND    DRESS. 


and  quantity,  as  will  protect  them  from  the  sensation  of  chilli- 
ness and  cold,  and  no  more  nor  no  less. 

Should  we  depend  upon  clothing  only  for  the  warmth  of  the  body  ? 

No ;  we  should  also  seek  it  by  exercising  freely  every  day 
in  the  open  air.  If  we  neglect  this,  the  body  becomes  weak- 
ened and  relaxed.  The  more  we  exercise  the  less  clothing 
will  be  required,  and  the  more  comfortable  we  shall  feel. 

Should  a  dress  be  made  so  as  to  Jit  tightly  about  the  body  ? 

No,  such  is  very  hurtful.  A  dress,  tight  over  the  chest, 
not  only  binds  the  ribs  together,  and  thus  prevents  the  free 
play  of  the  lungs,  but  it  crowds  all  the  vital  organs  upon  eadh 
other,  so  as  to  derange  their  proper  action,  and  obstruct  the 
circulation  in  all  parts  of  the  system.  Thousands  die  annu- 
ally, the  victims  of  consumption,  produced  by  tight-lacing. 

Should  a  lady  wear  in  the  waist  of  her  dress  whalebone,  wood,  or  steel  ? 

No,  never.  Such  casing  and  confining  are  deadly  foes  to 
health  and  life,  as  everything  is  which  prevents  perfect  free- 
dom of  action  to  the  vital  organs.  The  ribs  perhaps  may  be 
more  easily  changed  than  any  of  the  other  bones  of  the  body. 
Their  very  structure  is  such  that  the  constant  pressure  or 
tightness  of  clothing  day  after  day,  needs  to  be  but  slight  to 
bend  the  ribs  downward  or  inward. 


Natural  Form  and  the  Ribs.  Fashionable  Form  and  the  Ribs. 

At  what  period  in  life  will  the  ribs  yield  the  more  readily  to  compression  f 
During  childhood  the  bones  are  soft  and  pliable,  and  read- 
ily accommodate  themselves  to  any  position  which  is  habitual. 
Tight-fitting  dresses  on  a  young  lady  from  the  age  of  four- 
teen to  twenty,  are  the  only  appliances  needed  to  make  her 
sadly  deformed  in  chest  for  the  remainder  of  her  life,  which 
can  not  be  of  long  duration  in  consequence. 
What  great  mistake  do  females  commit  in  their  manner  of  dress  ? 
It  is  well  known  that  a  loose  and  easy  dress  contributes 
much  to  give  the  sex  the  fine  proportions  of  body  that  are 
observable  in  the  Grecian  statues,  and  which  serve  as  models 
to  modern  artists,  Nature  being  too  much  disfigured  among 


CLOTHIXG   AND    DRESS.  57 

us  to  afford  any  such  models  now.     The  Greek  women  were 
ignorant  of  the  use  of  whalebone  stays,  by  which  our  women 
distort  their  shape,  instead  of  displaying  it.     This  practice  is  ' 
carried  to  so  great  an  excess  in  America  that  it  must  in  time 
degenerate  the  species^  besides  being  in  very  bad  taste. 

Can  it  be  a  pleasant  sight  to  behold  a  woman's  waist  reduced  in  size  ? 

No :  on  the  contrary,  a  wasp-like  waist  is  as  shocking  to 
the  eye  as  it  is  painful  to  the  imagination.  A  fine  shape,  like 
that  of  a  limb,  hath  its  due  size  and  proportion,  a  diminution 
of  which  is  certainly  a  defect.  Everything  that  confines  and 
lays  Nature  under  restraint  is  an  instance  of  bad  taste.  This 
is  as  true  in  regard  to  the  ornaments  of  the  body  as  the  embel- 
lishments of  the  mind.  Life,  health,  reason,  and  convenience, 
ought  to  be  taken  first  into  consideration.  Gracefulness  can 
not  subsist  without  ease,  nor  must  a  woman  be  sick  in  order 
to  please. 

Is  the  wearing  of  flannel  next  to  the  skin  thought  good  for  the  health  ? 

Yes ;  as  it  protects  the  body  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
injurious  effects  of  sudden  changes  in  the  atmosphere.  Flan- 
nel, being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  prevents  the  warmth  of 
the  body  from  escaping  too  fast. 

At  what  seasons  of  the  year  should  flannel  be  worn  ? 

Many  persons  wear  it  all  the  year,  but  it  is  much  better  to 
put  it  on  at  the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  changes  from 
heat  to  cold  are  sudden,  and  to  leave  it  off  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  This  remark  applies  to  persons  in  ordinary 
health.  But  people  of  feeble  constitutions,  and  particularly 
children  liable  to  the  summer  complaint,  should  wear  flannel 
more  or  less  thick,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year. 

If  flannel  irritates  the  skin,  what  is  a  good  substitute  ? 

Cotton  or  silk  under-clothes.  They  are  almost  and  perhaps 
quite  as  serviceable  as  flannel. 

What  should  be  done  when  our  clothes  become  wet  or  damp  ? 
When  our  clothes  have  become  wet  or  moist  with  dew, 
rain,  or  perspiration,  they  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be  chang- 
ed for  dry  ones,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  rubbed 
with  a  flesh-brush  or  coarse  towel  till  it  is  glowing  red. 

For  what  reason  should  our  garments  be  worn  loose  and  easy  f 

Besides  the  reason  already  given  for  avoiding  tight-dress- 
ing, loose  garments  are  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  sum- 
mer than  tight  ones. 

Should  flannel  under-clothes  be  often  changed  ? 

They  should ;  for  they  soon  become  filled  with  the  vapor 
or  perspiration  constantly  escaping  from  the  body.  It  would 


EXERCISE    OP    THE    BODY   AND    MIND. 


be  well  to  have  two  sets  of  flannels,  one  for  the  day,  and  the 
other  for  the  night,  and  to  air  them  well  during  the  day. 
Should  night-dresses  for  the  same  reason  be  well  aired  ? 

They  should.     Instead  of  folding  them  up,  as  is  the  com- 
mon practice,  they  should  be  hung  up,  'to  expose  them  to  the 
action  of  the  air  all  day. 
Do  not  bed-clothes  become  filled  with  the  vapor  that  issues  from  the  body? 

Yes.  Beds  as  well  as  clothes  become  saturated  with  the 
vapor  or  perspiration  which  is  constantly  issuing  from  the 
body ;  and  for  this  reason  the  bed-clothes  should  be  taken 
off  early  in  the  morning,  the  bed  shaken  up,  and  the  bed- 
room windows  left  open  for  several  hours  in  each  day. 
When  this  is  not  attended  to  what  are  the  consequences  ? 

Impure  air,  nervous  complaints,  fevers,  and  bad  health  in 
various  forms.  Housekeepers  and  chambermaids  are  apt  to 
say,  that  they  have  no  time  to  wait  for  this  airing.  They  are 
in  too  much  haste  "  to  have  the  rooms  put  in  order."  But 
they  should  remember  that  a  bed  is  put  out  of  order,  when 
"  made  up"  too  soon,  and  that  the  best  way  to  save  time  is  to 
save  health. 

LESSON  TWENTY-FIRST. 

Exercise  of  the  Body  and  Mind. 


Can  a  person  enjoy  good  health  without  taking  suitable  exercise  ? 

Not  for  any  great  length  of  time  ;  for  the  health  and  strength  . 
of  the  body  and  mind  wholly  depend  upon  the  nature  and 
quantity  of  the  exercise  taken.  A  person  whose  habits  of 
body  are  active,  has  a  better  appetite  and  digestion,  breathes 
more  freely,  has  a  freer  circulation  of  the  blood,  a  fuller  de- 
velopment of  muscle,  and  a  clearer  brain,  than  one  who  is 
inactive  or  sluggish.  . 

Does  exercise  enlarge  and  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the  body  ? 

Yes :  and  in  order  that  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  should 
have  the  full  benefit,  the  exercise  or  labor  should  be  varied, 
for  the  muscles  which  are  the  most  employed  are  the  strong- 


EXERCISE    OF    THE    BODY    AND    MIND.  59 


est  and  the  most  fully  developed,  while  those  which  are  but 
little  used  become  soft,  enfeebled,  and  shrivelled. 
Where,  when,  and  how,  must  exercise  be  taken  to  do  the  most  good  ¥ 
In  the  open  air ;  but  not  just  before,  nor  immediately  after, 
eating  a  meal,  unless  it  has  been  a  very  moderate  one. 
Why  is  exercise  injurious  just  before  eating  ? 

Because  the  nervous  vigor  is  directed  during  exercise  upon 
those  parts  and  organs  which  are  most  employed.  If,  there- 
fore, exercise  of  the  mind  or  body  be  taken  just  before  eat- 
ing, the  digestive  organs  are  not  in  the  right  condition  for 
receiving  food;  which  should  not  be  eaten  until  the  nervous 
equilibrium  has  become  sufficiently  restored. 
Why  should  exercise  be  avoided  immediately  after  eating  a  meal  ? 

Because  a  vigorous  action  can  not  be  sustained  in  two  parts 
of  the  body  at  the  same  time  ;  one  or  the  other  or  both  must 
be  imperfect.  To  insure  a  perfect  digestion  the  stomach 
must  be  allowed  to  do  its  perfect  work,  and  without  interfer- 
ence from  the  action  of  other  parts  of  the  body.  We,  there- 
fore, should  permit  the  mind  and  body  to  rest  awhile  before 
and  after  each  meal. 
Do  not  many  persons  delay  walking  for  exercise  until  just  before  night  ? 

They  do  ;  but  it  is  not  a  good  practice.  Between  sunrise 
and  sunset  is  the  proper  time  for  exercise  out  of  doors.  The 
air,  toward  night,  is  filled  with  a  moist  and  miasmatic  vapor 
arising  from  the  ground,  and  therefore  is  not  so  healthy  as  at 
any  other  time  of  the  day. 
What  kind  of  exercise  is  the  best  to  promote  health  and  strength  ? 

Such  as  will  interest  the  mind,  as  well  as  give  action  to  the 
body.  Driving  the  hoop,  jumping  the  rope,  skating,  swim- 
ming, riding  on  horseback  or  in  a  carriage,  through  cheerful 
scenes,  are  all  healthy  exercises,  if  taken  at  proper  seasons, 
and  will  serve  to  strengthen  the  body  and  invigorate  the  mind. 
Should  excessive  or  violent  exercise  be  avoided  as  injurious  ? 

Yes.     If  the  exercise  is  too  violent  or  too  long-continued 
the  body  is  rather  exhausted  than  invigorated.     The  exercise 
should  never  go  beyond  a  slight  fatigue,  never  to  exhaustion  ; 
nor  should  it  be  allowed  to  produce  that  uneasy  restlessness  |j) 
which  unfits  one  for  any  other  immediate  duty,  and  which 
rather  wears  upon  than  adds  to  the  general  health. 
Does  thinking,  or  keeping  the  mind  in  an  active  state,  benefit  the  health  ? 

It  does,  for  mental  effort  exercises  the  brain.     The  brain, 
as  before  stated,  runs,  by  means  of  the  nerves,  through  every 
j?|  part  of  the  body.     The  soundness  and  health  of  the  body  de- 
I  pend  very  much  on  the  sound,  healthy  state  of  the  brain  and  fi 


I 


60         EFFECTS  OF  SPIRITUOUS  LIQUORS  ON  THE  BODY. 


nerves.  In  short,  the  mind  and  the  body  are  continually  act- 
ing and  reacting  on  each  other ;  the  mind  on  the  body  through 
its  affections  and  passions,  and  the  body  on  the  mind  through 
its  organs  of  digestion  and  secretion,  and  through  its  nervous 
influences. 

Do  not  slaves  and  other  ignorant  people  enjoy  good  health  ? 

They  do ;  but  it  is  not  because  of  their  ignorance  and 
mental  inactivity,  for  notwithstanding  these,  they  enjoy  good 
health.  Besides,  such  persons  are  usually  restricted  by  their 
condition,  to  a  temperate  diet,  and  live  much  in  the  open  air. 
When,  however,  disease  does  fall  upon  them,  they  have  less 
mental  energy  to  resist  it,  and  are  but  too  apt  to  yield  to  it 
at  once  in  weakness  and  despair.  The  mind,  if  strong  and 
well  trained,  has  a  great  control  over  the  pains  and  diseases 
of  the  body. 

Does  a  proper  degree  of  study,  then,  improve  the  body  as  well  as  the  mind  ? 
Yes ;  for  man  has  a  mind  to  be  exercised  and  kept  healthy, 
as  well  as  a  body.  If  a  man  were  to  sit  still  in  a  chair  for 
one  year,  the  health  and  strength  of  his  body  would  be  seri- 
ously, perhaps  irremediably,  impaired.  So,  if  he  neglect  the 
vigorous  exercise  of  his  mind,  for  only  a  short  time,  all  its 
powers  are  weakened.  Hence  we  may  see  the  cause  of  so 
many  mental  dwarfs.  They  have  neglected  reading  and 
thinking,  and  are  filled  with  superstitious  notions,  which  cramp 
and  belittle  the  mind. 

What  was  the  remark  of  the  great  philosopher,  Sir  Francis  Bacon  ? 

He  said :    "  Reading  makes  a  full  man ;  conversation  a  • 
ready  man ;  and  thinking  a  great  man." 

LESSON  TWENTY-SECOND, 

Effects  of  Alcoholic  or  Spirituous  Liquors  on  the  Body. 


now  is  the  stomach  affected  by  the  drinking  of  spirituous  liquors  ? 

The  stomach  becomes  deranged,  and  its  natural  form  and 
color  are  changed.  If  the  stomach  of  a  person,  who  has  been 
in  the  habit  of  drinking  much  alcoholic  or  spirituous  liquor, 


1 


EFFECTS  OF  SPIRITUOUS  LIQUORS  ON  THE  BODY.         61 

be  examined  after  death,  the  inside  of  it  will  be  found  to  be 
feverish  and  inflamed,  and  all  the  little  vessels  filled  with 
impure,  black  blood.  The  stomach  of  a  drunkard  is  lined 
within  with  a  hard  crust,  which  greatly  retards  digestion, 
and  rapidly  produces  disease  in  consequence. 
Do  spirituous  liquors  burn  the  stomach  as  they  do  the  mouth  and  throat  ? 

Certainly  ;  only  much  worse,  because  the  hot,  fiery  stuff 
soon  leaves  the  mouth  and  throat,  but  remains  in  the  stomach. 
If  the  burning  drink  should  remain  as  long  in  the  mouth  and 
throat  as  it  does  in  the  stomach  they,  being  more  sensitive, 
would  shortly  be  in  a  blistered  state. 
When  the  stomach  is  diseased,  ire  other  parts  of  the  body  affected  f 

Yes,  all  parts  are  ;  the  head  aches,  the  lungs  and  liver  are 
disordered,  and  the  whole  system  is  more  or  less  distempered. 
What  effect  has  drinking  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  liver  ? 

The  effect  is  to  enlarge  it.     The  liver  of  the  drinking  man 
soon  becomes  of  a  frightfully  unnatural  size. 
What  is  the  natural  color  of  thejluid  in  the  liver? 
Bright  yellow,  but   the  drinking  of  intoxicating  liquors 
changes  it  to  a  black,  thick  substance,  much  like  tar. 
How  do  alcoholic  liquors  affect  the  brain  and  the  heart  ? 

They  harden  and  shrink  the  arteries  of  the  brain,  and  excite 
the  heart  to  a  very  hurried  and  unnatural  action,  which  in- 
creases the  wear  and  hastens  the  decay  of  the  whole  system. 
7s  the  blood  injured  by  drinking  alcoholic  or  intoxicating  liquors  ? 

Yes,  its  healthy  properties  may  be  nearly  destroyed  ;  for 
alcoholic  liquors  deprive  the  blood  of  its  light-red  color,  by 
jl  taking  out  its  living  principle.     The  blood  of  an  habitual 
|  drinker  is  much  darker  than  that  of  a  temperate  person. 
7s  there  any  nourishment  in  alcohol,  in  whatever  form  it  may  be  found? 

No,  not  one  atom  !     Whether  in  the  form  of  beer,  cider, 
wine,  rum,  whiskey,  or  brandy,  alcohol  is  not  digested  in  the 
stomach  ;  neither  does  it  makes  chyle.     This  poisonous  stuff 
passes  into  the  blood,  and  is  found  in  the  brain,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  system,  unchanged  from  what  it  was  when  first  ,  , 
taken  into  the  mouth. 
What  evil  results  arise  from  the  habit  of  using  intoxicating  drinks? 

Besides  the  irreparable  injury  to  the  body,  the  habitual 
drinker  will  almost  invariably  neglect  and  abuse  his  family. 
If  he  is  a  skillful  mechanic  his  skill  becomes  impaired,  and  he 
is  then  compelled  to  apply  his  hands  to  coarser  work,  and 
finally  betake  himself  to  the  rudest  labor,  or  become  a  degrad- 
street  vagrant.  Therefore,  all  should  avoid  even  the  first 
Jf  taste  of  that  which  may  in  the  end  prove  their  ruin. 


; 


j      n 
3    ed 


62  MAN,    THE    CHIEF    OF    ANIMAL    LIFE. 


LESSON  TWENTY-THIRD. 
Man,  or  "the  Human  Form  Divine." 

In  what  does  man,  in  bodily  structure,  differ  from  every  other  animal  ? 

In  his  erect  or  upright  position,  and  the  peculiar  construc- 
tion of  his  hands  and  feet ;  but  more  especially  in  the  eyes, 
which  man  can  move  in  every  direction,  while  the  eyes  of 
other  animals  are  fixed.  The  skin  or  the  outer  covering  of 
his  body  is  also  different  from  any  other  animal. 

Is  there  anything  else  in  which  man  differs  from  every  other  animal  ? 

His  brain  is  larger  and  more  perfectly  developed,  than  that 
of  any  other  animal  in  proportion  to  his  size.  Man  has  artic- 
ulate language,  reason,  imagination,  wit,  and  humor ;  and  he 
knows,  or  can  know,  what  is  true  and  what  is  false,  what  is 
right  and  what  is  wrong.  Man  is  also  a  being  capable  of 
being  educated  in  a  career  of  endless  improvement. 

Are  not  other  animals,  likewise,  capable  of  being  educated  ? 


No,  not  in  any  just  sense.     Their  nature,  or  instinct,  is  as 
knowing  at  first,  while  they  are  young,  as  in  after-years, 
though  the  number  of  objects  or  purposes,  to  which  it  can  be 
applied,  may  be  somewhat  increased.     Man  was  created  to  be  jd 
flj  educated,  and  beasts  were  made  for  his  use.  t 

Are  all  the  senses  combined  in  man  more  perfect  than  in  any  other  animal  ?  ] 
jy      They  are;  though  a  few  animals  have  some  one  of  the  Jj, 
if  senses  more  perfect  that  man.     Thus  the  eagle  can  see  farther,  JU 
the  dog  can  smell  more  keenly,  and  some  insects,  with  their  |) 
slender  feelers,  can  feel  more  nicely. 
What  faculty  has  man  that  is  not  found  in  any  other  animal  f 

The  moral  or  religious  faculty ;  the  faculty  which  tells  man  j,'jj 
he  ought  to  do  right,  and  which  gives  him  pain  when  he  does  jf, 
I  wrong ;  the  faculty  that  tells  us  we  ought  to  worship  the  Ore-  1 
ator  of  all  things.     Other  animals  have  not  this  faculty.  |l 

Has  any  species  of  animals  improved  like  man  9 

No ;  the  first  beehive,  the  first  anthill,  the  first  bird's-nest, 
the  first  beaver's  dam  and  dwelling-house,  the  first  spider's  web, 
have  only  been  repeated  through  their  countless  generations, 
the  last  one  being  not  only  no  more  skillfully  made  than  the 
first,  but  exactly  like  it.  They  also  remain  without  any  tools,  > 
ijijl  or  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  uses  of  the  mechanical  powers, 
s|  to  exercise  their  skill  upon  the  objects  around  them.  They 
if  have  nothing  but  the  muscles  and  instinct  given  them  at  that 
j  [  mysterious  beginning,  when  the  Creative  Word  first  sent 
]|  them  forth,  "  each  after  his  kind." 

m 


THE    LENGTH    OF   ANIMAL    LIFE.  63 

LESSON  TWENTY-FOURTH. 

Longevity,  or  the  Length  of  Animal  Life. 

Do  most  of  the  infants  that  are  born  live  to  an  advanced  age  ? 

No.  Of  all  the  infants  born,  only  one  half  live  to  see  their 
eighth  year  ;  but  one  third  of  the  whole  number  live  beyond 
their  fourteenth  year ;  and  but  one  fourth  of  all  that  are  born 
survive  their  twenty -first  year ;  or,  in  other  words,  three 
fourths  of  mankind  die  before  they  reach  an  adult  age. 

What  is  the  reason  of  so  great  a  mortality  among  children  ? 

Because  in  most  instances  their  parents  are  unacquainted 
with  Physiology,  and  leave  all  that  relates  to  the  diet,  exer- 
cise, and  general  health  of  their  children,  to  the  care  of  chance 
and  the  doctors,  until  too  late  to  save  their  lives. 

What  general  rule  is  there  which  tells  the  length  of  animal  or  vegetable  life  ? 
"  Whatever  grows  quickly,  decays  equally  quickly,"  or,  as 
it  is  worded  in  the  old  proverb,  "  Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten." 

Can  this  rule  be  proved  true  by  any  illustration  ? 

Yes ;  a  man  who  is  twenty-five  years  coming  to  maturity, 
lives,  not  very  unfrequently,  to  eighty  or  ninety  years,  and, 
occasionally,  some  to  even  over  one  hundred  years.  But  the 
dog,  that  attains  his  growth  in  two  years,  seldom  lives  to  be 
more  than  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age. 

Are  fishes  a  long  time  in  attaining  their  full  growth  f 

They  are ;  and  some  of  them  live  from  two  to  three  hun- 
dred years.  A  pike  was  known  to  have  lived  still  longer. 

Can  you  mention  some  other  instances  of  longevity  or  long  life  ? 

The  elephant  is  thirty  years  m  attaining  his  full  growth, 
and  lives  two  hundred  years.  The  rhinoceros  attains  his 
growth  in  fifteen  years,  and  lives  from  eighty  to  ninety.  The 
camel  attains  his  full  stature  in  four  years,  and  lives  to  from 
forty  to  fifty.  The  horse  is  also  four  years  in  growing,  and 
lives  to  thirty.  The  sheep  attains  his  full  growth  in  about  a 
year,  and  lives  but  eight  or  ten.  The  hog  usually  ceases  to 
grow  in  from  twelve  to  sixteen  months,  and  lives  about  as 
many  years. 

Does  the  same  general  rule  apply  to  birds  ? 

Yes ;  the  smaller  kinds  attain  their  full  growth  in  a  few 
months,  and  usually  live  but  three  or  four  years. 

Do  the  larger  birds  generally  live  longer  than  the  smaller  ones  ? 

They  do ;  but  there  are  various  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
For  example,  the  raven  and  the  eagle  attain  their  full  size  in 
a  short  time,  but  they  live  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  years.  { ) 


m 


64  THE    LENGTH    OF    ANIMAL    LIFE. 


Has  the  toad  been  known  to  live  a  long  time  ? 

Yes ;  one  was  known  to  have  lived  thirty-six  years ;  and 
occasionally  living  toads  have  been  found  enclosed  in  compact 
masses  of  rock,  in  which  they  must  have  been  shut  up  for 
hundreds  of  years  perhaps. 
Are  insects  usually  long  lived  ? 

No  ;  they  are   generally  very  short-lived.     There  are  in- 
sects, called  ephemerous  (a  Greek  word  meaning  "for  a  day"), 
whose  lives  begin  and  end  between  the  rising  and  setting  of 
the  sun. 
What  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit  of  man's  life  ? 

Seventy  years ;  some  persons  live  to  a  more  advanced  age ; 
but  this  refers  only  to  the  limit  of  his  bodily  existence  on  earth. 
Man's  mind  or  spirit — his  soul — continues  to  live  for  ever. 
Will  they  who  die  young,  even  in  infancy,  continue  to  exist  hereafter  ? 

Yes,,  as  long  as  they  who  have  existed  on  the  earth  many 
years.  The  soul  of  man  is  immortal ;  and  although  this  high 
destiny,  decreed  for  him  by  his  Creator,  when  he  made  him 
"  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,  and  crowned  him  with  glory," 
had  long  been  the  hope  of  some,  and  the  dream  of  many,  yet 
was  it  "fully  brought  to  light"  only  in  the  Gospel,  as  part  of 
"  the  glad  tidings"  announced  from  heaven  by  the  descended 
Son  of  God. 


A  parting  Word  of  Advice  to  our  Young  Readers. 

Having  gone  as  fully  into  the  most  important  but  much  neglected 
study  of  Physiology  as  our  limited  space  will  permit,  and  having  given 
in  this  work  but  an  introductory  or  primary  glance  at  its  more  impor- 
tant teachings,  wo  would  earnestly  urge  our  young  readers  to  still  fur- 
ther pursue  this  most  interesting  of  all  studies.  A  great  number  of 
books  have  been  written  on  this  subject ;  and  among  them  are  the  fol- 
lowing, from  which  we  have  gathered  many  of  the  facts  we  have  stated. 

THE  PRACTICAL  PHYSIOLOGY,  by  Edward  Jarvis,  M.  D.  Publish- 
e"d  in  Philadelphia,  by.H.  Cowperthwait  &  Co. 

THE  LAWS  OP  HEALTH,  by  Wm.  A.  Alcott,  M.  D.  Published  in 
Boston,  by  John  P.  Jewett  &  Company. 

ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HYGIENE,  by  Calvin  Cutter,  M.  D.  | 
Published  in  New  York,  by  Clark,  Austin,  &  Smith. 

Every  family  should  possess  one  or  more  works  on  Physiology,  to  '  \f 
consult  as  they  would  a  "Family  Physician,"  and  to  teach  them  not  n 
only  how  to  preserve  health,  but  how  health  maybe  restored,  when  If 
|  from  neglect  or  inattention  to  the  laws  of  nature  it  has  become  partially  i!|r 
I  destroyed,  'ftie  proper  study  of  man  is  to  know  himself  physically  as  lni 
if  well  as  morally. 

D^r*  Would  you  possess  a  copy  of  either  of  the  above*named  books, 
"  enclose,  with  your  address,  a  one-dollar  bank-bill,  or  its  equivalent  in 
postage  stamps,  directed  to  the  publisher  of  the  book  desired,  and  you 
will  receive  it  by  mail,  free  from  any  charge  for  transportation. 


} 


Important  to  Teachers,  Students,  and  Clergymen 


HEALTH  WITHOUT  MEDICINE! 

y      CURE  WITHOUT  PAY  ! ! 

HALL'S  JOUMITOF"  HEALTH, 


Edited  by  Dr.  W.  W.  HALL,  42  Irving  Place,  N.  Y. 
One  Dollar  a  Year — Specimen  numbers,  Ten  Cents. 


This  Journal  never  advises  a  dose  of  medicine. 

It  is  oftener  quoted,  and  more  frequently  commended,  than  any 
other  health  publication  in  the  world,  at  home  or  abroad. 

It  is  always  on  the  side  of  order,  virtue,  morality,  and  religion. 

It  seeks  to  show  the  young  how  they  may  early  learn  to  take  care 
of  their  constitutions,  and  thus  live  in  health  to  a  good  old  age. 

It  shows  those  who  are  of  more  mature  years  how  they  may,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  of  acute  disease,  be  restored  to  health  by  means  of 
rest,  diet,  sleep,  and  warmth,  with  the  aid  of  moderate  out-door  ac- 
tivities. 

It  seeks  to  impress  the  mind  by  striking  facts  and  self-evident  pre- 
cepts, of  the  advantages  of  system,  punctuality,  integrity,  energy,  and 
promptitude,  in  securing  wealth  and  position ;  in  the  quiet,  and  tem- 
perate, and  unobtrusive  enjoyment  of  which,  they  may  pass  to  an  old 
age  of  repose,  of  health,  and  of  good  doing. 

It  seeks  to  show  how  means  of  health,  really  good  in  themselves, 
may  be  carried  to  such  extremes  as  to  induce  incurable  diseases  ;  that 
dieting,  bathing,  exercise,  and  curtailment  of  sleep,  may  waste  health, 
happiness,  and  life,  together. 

HALL'S  JOURNAL  OF  HEALTH  has  been  published  four  years ;  each 
volume  is  sold,  bound  in  muslin,  for  $1.25,  and  sent  postpaid  for 
$1 .35.  The  four  volumes  are  sold  or  sent  postpaid  for  Five  Dollars. 

Dr.  HALL  has  devoted  his  attention  for  many  years  to  the  treat- 
ment of  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Lungs,  and  he  has  published 
"BRONCHITIS,  AND  KINDRED  DISEASES,"  and  also, 
"  CONSUMPTION ;"  either  book  is  sold  or  sent  postpaid  for  One 
Dollar.  Address  in  all  cases  simply,  Dr.  W.  W.  HALL, 

NEW  YORK. 


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